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A&P 1 ( Professor Ward '22) > Exam #2 > Flashcards

Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the types of bone?

A
  • compact bone
  • spongy (cancellous) bone
  • long
  • short
  • irregular
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2
Q

What type of bone is trabecular?

A

Cancellous (spongy) bone

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3
Q

What does long bone consist of?

A

*Epiphysis (proximal and distal)
* Diaphysis
*Articular cartilage
*Spongy bone
*Medullary cavity
*

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4
Q

on the proximal and distal ends of long bone

A

epiphysis

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5
Q

Articular cartilage equals

A

hyaline cartilage

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6
Q

remains of the epiphyseal plate

A

Epiphyseal line

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7
Q

the shaft of long bone

A

diaphysis

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8
Q

Spongy bone:

A

red bone marrow (site of blood formation)

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9
Q

The diaphysis of the long bone includes:

A
  • Medullary cavity- (yellow marrow, blood vessels, fat, nerves)
  • Endosteum- (membrane lines marrow cavity)
  • Periosteum- (membrane that covers diaphysis, contains osteoblasts, and build/repair bone)
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10
Q

bone cells trapped in lacunae

A

Osteocytes

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11
Q

small channels and passageways in the bone that allow gases, nutrients, and removal of wastes to and from osteocytes.

A

Canaliculi

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12
Q

a canal that runs vertically (up/down) through the core containing small blood vessels, nerve fibers, as well as lymphatic vessels

A

Central (Haversion) Canal

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13
Q

What are central canals lined with?

A

Endosteum

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14
Q

a canal that runs horizontally (side/side) and connects the blood, lymphatic, and nerve supply of the periosteum to those in the central canals.

A

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal

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15
Q
  • the external surface of the entire bone
  • fibrous layer
  • osteogenic layer
A

Periosteum

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16
Q

Fibrous layer:

A
  • outer layer

* dense connective tissue

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17
Q

Osteogenic layer:

A
  • inner layer

* consists of bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) and bone-destroying cells (osteoclasts)

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18
Q

Long bones:

A
  • a bone that has a shaft and two ends

* all limb bones except the ankle, wrist, and kneecap

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19
Q

Short bones:

A
  • bones that are cubed shape

* wrist and ankle bones

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20
Q

Flat bones:

A
  • bones that are thin, flattened, and usually curved

* sternum, scapular, ribs, most skull bones

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21
Q

Irregular bones:

A
  • bones that are shaped funny

* vertebrae and hip bones

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22
Q

Sesamoid bone:

A
  • a special type of short bone that is formed into a tendon

* patella (kneecap)

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23
Q

the functional unit of compact bone

A

osteon

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24
Q

formation of bone (replacement of connective tissue by bone)

A

Bone Ossification

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25
Q

Intramembranous:

A
  • bone forms from simple connective tissue

* Ex. skull, clavicle, lower jar

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26
Q

Endochondrial (most prevalent):

A
  • bones form from cartilage

- most bone

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27
Q

allows growth in bone length to continue

chondrocytes divide

A

Epiphyseal plate

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28
Q

Epiphyseal growth:

A
  • new bone added
  • new bone is spongy bone
  • marrow cavity established
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29
Q

Transformation zone:

A
  • old cells enlarge and die

* calcium deposited in the matrix

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30
Q

Osteogenic zone:

A

*bone replaces cartilage

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31
Q

ongoing replacement of old bone tissue with new bone (osteoblasts/osteoclasts)

A

Remodeling

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32
Q

a type of dense connective tissue

A

cartilage

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33
Q

what is cartilage covered by

A

perichondrium (dense irregular fibrous membrane)

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34
Q

Interstitial growth:

A

chondroblasts in immature cartilage divide and form small groups of cells which produce the matrix to become separated from each other by a thin partition of the matrix

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35
Q

Calcium:

A
  • Element critical to many body functions
  • nerve transmission
  • blood clotting
  • muscle contraction
  • many enzymes are used as cofactors
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36
Q

What are the most important calcium hormones?

A
  • parathormone
  • calcitriol
  • calcitonin
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37
Q

Parathormone:

A
  • produced by parathyroids
  • raise blood calcium levels
  • increase osteoclast activity, decrease the loss of calcium and urine, production of calcitriol
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38
Q

Calcitriol:

A
  • produced in the kidneys
  • activate vitamin D
  • raise blood calcium levels
  • decrease the loss of calcium in the urine and increase absorption in the digestive tract
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39
Q

Calcitonin:

A
  • produced in the thyroid gland
  • lowers blood calcium levels
  • inhibits osteoclasts
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40
Q

Hormones that stimulate muscle growth:

A
  • Calcitriol
  • Growth hormone
  • Thyroxin
  • Estrogens
  • Testosterone
  • Insulin
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41
Q

What type of cartilage is found in the trachea?

A

hyaline cartilage

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42
Q

Joints:

A

Site of contact between:

  • two bones
  • bone and cartilage
  • bone and gums
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43
Q

joints that have no movement

A

Synarthroses

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44
Q

joints that are slightly moveable

A

Amphiarthroses

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45
Q

joints that are freely moveable

A

Diarthroses

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46
Q

Cartilagenous Joints:

A
  • no cavity
  • cartilage
  • little to no movement
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47
Q

Cartilagenous Joint Types:

A
  • symphyses

- synchondroses

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48
Q

Fibrous Joints:

A
  • no cavity
  • fibrous connective tissue
  • little to no movement
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49
Q

Fibrous Joint Types:

A
  • sutures
  • gomphoses
  • syndesmoses
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50
Q

Synovial Joints:

A
  • cavity
  • ligaments
  • permit movement
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51
Q

Synovial Joint Types:

A
  • plane
  • hinge
  • pivot
  • condyloid
  • saddle
  • ball of socket
  • knee
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52
Q

Sutures:

A
  • skull
  • joint of thin fibrous connective
  • saw tooth articulation
  • no movement (synarthroses)
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53
Q

Gomphoses:

A
  • teeth in jaw
  • peg roots of tooth
  • socket: boney cavity
  • periodontal ligaments: join tooth to socket
  • no movement
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54
Q

Syndesmoses:

A
  • tibiofibular joint
  • extra fibrous tissue
  • some movement (amphiarthritic)
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55
Q

Symphyses:

A
  • vertebrae
  • pubic bones
  • joint is a broad flat disc of fibrocartilage
  • stabilized by ligaments
  • amiphiarthrotic)
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56
Q

Synchondroses:

A
  • epiphyseal plate
  • first rib
  • joint:hyaline cartilage
  • no movement
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57
Q

Synovial Joint:

A
  • Plane: vertebrae, carpal/tarsal joints
  • Hinge: elbow and interphalangeal joint
  • Pivot: axis and dens radioulnar joint
  • Condyloid: radiocarpal (wrist), metacarpophalangeal (knuckles) joint
  • Saddle: carpometacarpal joint of thumb
  • Ball & Socket: shoulder and hips
  • Knee: femoropatellar joint, medial and lateral tibiofemoral joint
58
Q

Fibrous Capsule:

A
  • surrounds joint
  • dense connective tissue
  • strength and flexibility
  • joins periosteum
59
Q

Bursa:

A
  • sacs with synovial membranes
  • between bones/muscles and bones/skin
  • reduce friction
60
Q

Meniscus:

A
  • pads of cartilage
  • functions
  • shock absorbers
  • modify the shape of articulating bones so they fit
  • add stability
61
Q

Synovial fluid:

A

cushions the ends of bones and reduces friction when you move your joints

62
Q

Joint Disorders:

A
  • Dislocations (fingers/shoulders)
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis
63
Q

Osteoarthritis (non-inflammatory):

A
  • articular cartilage deteriorates-spurs

- big joints first wear and tear

64
Q

Rheumatoid Arthritis:

A
  • autoimmune
  • inflammation of the synovial membrane (destroys cartilage)
  • small joints first
  • feed collagen
65
Q

What are the 3 muscle types?

A
  • skeletal muscle
  • cardiac
  • smooth
66
Q

What are the functions of muscle?

A
  • movement
  • opening and closing
  • stabilizing and containing
  • temperature control (85% body heat)
67
Q

Muscle characteristics:

A
  • Excitability
  • responds to stimuli
  • produces an electric charge
  • Contractility (shortens)
  • Extensibility (stretches)
  • Elasticity
68
Q

what are muscles made up of?

A

fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers)

69
Q

between the muscle fibers

A

Endomysium

70
Q
  • surrounds functional groups

- attaches to bone or tendons

A

Deep fascia

71
Q

surrounds individual muscle

A

Epimysium

72
Q

surrounds fascicles

A

Perimysium

73
Q

the cell membrane of the muscle surrounded by basement membrane and endomysial connective tissue.

A

Sarcolemma

74
Q
  • the longitudinal parallel (rod-like) contractile elements of a muscle cell that are composed of myosin and actin.
  • tubes inside myofilaments
A

Myofibrils

75
Q
  • one of the individual filaments of actin or myosin that make up a myofibril
A

Myofilaments

76
Q

What are the 3 myofilaments?

A
  • Thin-ACTIN
  • Thick-MYOSIN
  • Elastic-TITIN
77
Q

THIN (Actin):

A
  • 300-400 molecules

* myosin-binding site

78
Q

Tropomyosin:

A

blocks binding sites

79
Q

Troponin:

A

moves tropomyosin

80
Q

THICK (Myosin):

A
  • 500 molecules

* two heads and a tail

81
Q

ELASTIC (Titin):

A

binds thick filaments to Z disc

82
Q

region of myofibril between two Z discs

A

Sarcomere

83
Q

Sarcomere bands:

A
  • A Band
  • H Zone
  • I Band
  • Z Disc
  • M Line
84
Q

length of thick filament-overlap

A

A Band

85
Q

just thick filament-no overlap

A

H Zone

86
Q

thin filament only-no overlap

A

I Band

87
Q

ends of sarcomeres

A

Z Disc

88
Q

middle of thick

A

M Line

89
Q

Which sarcomere band disappears during contraction?

A

H Zone

90
Q

Sarcomere during contraction:

A
  • Actin filaments drawn together
  • H zone disappears
  • I band disappears
  • Z discs moves together
  • A band does not change
91
Q

Steps in Muscle Contraction:

A
  • Motor neuron fires (wave of electricity down neuron, muscle cell stimulated)
  • Wave of electricity travels along muscle cell
  • Electricity travels along muscle cell
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca++
  • Ca++ diffuses through the cytoplasm
  • Ca++ binds to troponin
  • Triggers a contraction
92
Q

Where the neuron or nerve cell meets a muscle cell

A

Neuromuscular junction

93
Q

end of the axon that contacts the muscle cell

A

Axon terminal

94
Q

feet on the end of the axon terminal

A

End bulbs

95
Q
  • inside the bulbs

- filled with ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)

A

Synaptic vesicles

96
Q

Stimulation of Muscle Contraction:

A
  1. Wave of electricity goes down the motor neuron
  2. Reaches synaptic end bulbs
  3. Opens Ca++ gates and Ca++ moves to the end bulb
  4. Vesicles open and release Ach
  5. Ach diffuses across the cleft
  6. Ach binds to receptor sites on the sarcolemma
  7. Opens ion gates in the sarcolemma
  8. cause a wave of electricity to pass over to the muscle cell
  9. causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca++
97
Q

Muscle Contraction Filaments:

A
  • Ca++ binds to troponin (pushing tropomyosin off of actin’s myosin-binding sites
  • Myosin activated by ATP (myosin head interacts with actin)
  • Process repeats until all of the Ca++ is gone
98
Q

Muscle Recovery:

A
  • Acetycholinesterase breaks down Ach
  • Ca++ moves into SR by active transport
  • Filaments unbind and slide back into the resting position
99
Q

a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it goes to

A

Motor unit

100
Q

What happens when a motor neuron fires?

A

All of the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract at the same time

101
Q

Strength of contraction equals:

A

the number of motor units activated

102
Q

motor neurons that innervate relatively few muscle fibers and form motor units that generate small forces (fingers, eyes)

A

small motor neurons

103
Q

motor neurons that innervate larger, more powerful motor units (back, legs, postural muscles)

A

large motor neurons

104
Q

the amount of tension generated by a muscle

A

Muscle tension

105
Q

Factors determining muscle tension:

A
  • frequency of stimulation
  • number of fibers (cells) contracting
  • length of sarcomeres
106
Q

Frequency of stimulation:

A
  • the greater the frequency of neuronal stimulation

- the more forcefully a muscle will contract

107
Q

response of a motor unit to a single stimulus

A

Twitch

108
Q

two or more stimuli applied in a short period of time

A

Tetanus

109
Q

Frequency of muscle stimulation:

A
  • the greater the frequency of neuronal stimulation

- the more forcefully a muscle will contract

110
Q

Elements of a twitch:

A
  • Latent period: Ca++ released from SR
  • Contraction period: filaments slide together
  • Relaxation period: Ca++ actively transported back into SI
  • Refractory period: muscle cannot respond again after stimulation, skeletal muscle 5mse.., cardiac muscle 30m
111
Q
  • slow rate

- muscle partially relaxes between stimuli

A

Incomplete Tetanus

112
Q
  • no relaxation between stimuli

- addition of extra Ca++

A

Complete Tetanus

113
Q

What happens when more muscle fibers are contracting?

A

the greater the force of the contraction

114
Q

Does the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit change?

A

No

115
Q

What happens when the motor unit is stimulated?

A

all of its associated fibers will contract. The more stimulated motor units, the stronger the contraction, and the larger the motor unit that is stimulated (a nerve connecting to numerous muscle fibers) the greater the contraction

116
Q

All or none principle:

A

when a neuron stimulates the muscle cells in its motor unit all individual fibers either contract fully (threshold stimulus or not at all (subthreshold)

117
Q

Length of a sarcomere:

A
  • Max Tension: perfect overlap of filaments
  • Too much stretch: fewer cross-bridges make contact, force of contraction decreases
  • Too little stretch: binding sites blocked
118
Q

the amount of tension (or resistance to movement) in muscles

A

Muscle tone

119
Q

Decrease in muscle size

  • lack of nerve stimulation
  • loss of myofibrils
  • muscle replaced by fibrous tissue
A

Atrophy

120
Q

Increase in muscle tissue

  • increased myofibrils, mitochondria, SR
  • caused by forceful or repetitive activity
A

Hypertrophy

121
Q

Energy for contraction (Muscle Metabolism):

A

A) direct phosphorylation (coupled reaction of creatine phosphate and ADP)
B) Anaerobic mechanism (glycolysis and lactic acid formation
C) Aerobic mechanism (aerobic cellular respiration)

122
Q

Whereby ATP is needed for muscle contraction and it can come from either:

A
  1. Muscles Storage – Creatine Phosphate
  2. glucose/fatty acids making ATP :
    Anaerobically- 2 ATP’s
    Aerobically- 36 ATP’s, but 2 are used in the process, so 34 ATP’s in Total
123
Q

Creatine Phosphate:

A
  • Muscles store extra phosphates for ATP as Creatine Phosphate
  • Transfers high energy phosphate back to ADP very rapidly
  • Fuel used only for muscle contraction
  • Lasts 15 seconds
124
Q

Needs of muscle for cell respiration:

A
  • Oxygen
  • Glucose
  • Phosphates
125
Q

Muscles store extra oxygen for cell respiration as

A

Myoglobin

126
Q

Muscles store glucose for cell respiration as

A

Glycogen

127
Q

Muscle Fatigue:

A

Lactic acid accumulates in muscles and liver
*disrupts enzymes
*disrupts cell respiration
ATP supplies run down

128
Q

3 types of muscle fibers:

A
  • Slow oxidative fibers
  • Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers
  • Fast Glycolytic fibers
129
Q

Slow Oxidative Fibers:

A
  • small, least powerful
  • slow-twitch 100-200msec
  • resist fatigue
130
Q

Fast Oxidative Fibers:

A
  • intermediate-sized
  • fast-twitch 100 msec
  • moderately resistant to fatigue
131
Q

Fast Glycolytic Fibers

A
  • largest, most powerful
  • large amounts of glycogen-ATP by glycolysis
  • Fast
  • Fatigue
132
Q

When the tension generated by a muscle holding a weight is:

A
  • Less than a weight- the weight will drop
  • Same as a weight- weight won’t move
  • More than the weight- the weight will rise
133
Q

Isometric Contraction:

A
  • muscle does not shorten
  • no movement
  • tension increases
134
Q

Isotonic Contraction:

A
  • muscle shortens or lengthens
  • there is movement
  • tension is constant
135
Q

2 types of Isotonic Contractions:

A
  • Concentric contractions

* Eccentric contractions

136
Q
  • tension exceeds the resistance
  • weight is lifted
  • muscle shortens
A

Concentric contractions

137
Q
  • tension is less than resistance
  • weight is lowered
  • muscle elongates
A

Eccentric contractions

138
Q

a structure that moves on a fulcrum

A

Lever

139
Q

First-class lever:

A

fulcrum between effort and load (neck joint)

140
Q

Second class lever:

A
  • resistance between fulcrum and load
  • strong but slow
  • not thought to be found in the human body
141
Q

Third class lever:

A
  • effort between fulcrum and load
  • elbow joint
  • fast but less force
  • most common

A&P 1 ( Professor Ward '22) (3 decks)

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