Exam 2, Modules 4 - 7 Flashcards
The neural network responsible for detecting the simple cue (called a sign stimulus, or releaser) and activating the instinct, (called fixed action pattern), was called the __ __ __ by Tinbergen and Lorenz (both classical ethologists).
innate releasing mechanism
__: The study of the proximate mechanisms and adaptive value of animal behavior.
Ethology
__ : A behavioral pattern that reliably develops in most individuals, promoting a functional response to a __ stimulus the __ time the behavior is performed.
Instinct;
releaser;
first
Fixed action pattern : An __, highly __ response that is fully functional at its __ occurrence.
Triggered by a well-defined, simple __.
Once the pattern is activated, the response is performed in its __.
innate
stereotyped
first
stimulus
entirety
The component of an action or object that triggers a fixed action pattern in an animal is this.
Sign stimulus or releaser
__ stimulus: exaggerated stimuli that can be more effective at eliciting a response than normal stimuli.
supernormal
In a phenomenon called __ __, brood parasite chicks exploit the sensory systems of their hosts to ensure that they get fed, even when the markings fail to match those of their host species’ chicks perfectly.
This phenomenon is a simple relationship between an innate __ mechanism, sign __, and FAP, and is highlighted by the ability of some species to __ the FAPs of other species, a tactic sometimes referred to as code __.
Sensory exploitation (e.g., cuckoo)
releasing
stimulus
exploit
breaking
Explain the FAP of egg retrieval behavior in a graylag goose.
- If egg removed under a goose, goose will stretch its neck, tuck the egg, and roll back into its nest.
- If egg replaced with egg-shaped object, the goose would retrieve.
- If egg/object removed as it was being retrieved, the bird would continue retrieval behavior.
As a result of the egg retrieval behavior in graylag goose, Tinbergen and Lorenz concluded that:
* The goose has perceptual mechanism highly sensitive to __ cues (_-shaped objects).
* This sensory mechanism relays its information to the brain that __ activates a relatively invariant motor program for egg retrieval.
visual
egg
automatically
Experiments with herring gull chicks have revealed that recently hatched chicks __ almost everything except two __ cues: the shape of the “bill” (realistic or just a pencil with dots) and the red dot at the end of it.
ignore
visual
__: “the world as the animal perceives it.”
It includes acquisition of information – animals collect data (aka __), extract info from the data (aka __), and recognize stimuli that are of critical importance (aka __ __).
Umwelt
transduction
coding
feature detection
Light (also called __ energy) serves as a stimulus for information gathering by organisms.
electromagnetic
An exampe of a primitive eye that senses light and direction is the __ __ eye __.
A combination of photoreceptors that are both stimulated and not stimulated convey the __ of the light
Sea worm eye cup
direction
__ eyes permit projection of an image onto receptors.
Three examples include:
1. __ camera eye
2. Vertebrate __ camera eye
3. __ eye (basically an array of eye __ pointed in different directions).
True
- Pinhole
- lens
- Compound; cups
A nautilus has a __ camera eye which is basically an eye __ that developed into a chamber.
Advantage: Achieves true imaging by __ the size of the opening
Disadvantage: poor __
pinhole;
cup
reducing
resolution
Re. vertebrate lens camera eye:
Advantage: high __
Disadvantage: (1) much brain __ is needed for highly detailed visual processing. (2) __ (both __ and __) are densely packed at the fovea (1:1), but outside the fovea, many receptors (mostly __) share a single __.
resolution
space
Receptors (rods and cones)
(rods)
neuron
The __ eye is basically an array of eye cups pointed in different directions.
Advantage (vs. lens camera eye): much more efficient for invertebrates due to its lightweight but higher (than cup eye) __. (1/50 of camera-lens resolution, but 1/__ of weight).
Disadvantage: __ (diffusion) gets worse with __ wavelengths; BUT they can detect __ rays.
Compound
resolution
5000
Diffraction
longer
UV
Each element of a compound eye (the ‘cups’) is called an __.
Ommatidium
In vertebrate lens camera eye, horizontal cells that are receiving intense stimuli from some rods will laterally inhibit other cells that are not receiving as much stimulation in a phenomenon called __ __.
It creates the illusion of a ‘__ band’ of light / darker areas. The evolutionary significance is enhanced __ detection.
Lateral inhibition
mach
edge
__ cells: retinal cells that connect to several receptors (rods and cones) to enhance edge detection.
Horizontal
Specialized adaptations in visual info processing include:
__: reflective membrane at the back of the retina of nocturnal animals’ eyes (glow). Gives escaped __ a second chance to be delivered to rods.
The __ and __ of each eye is what determines binocularity and monocularity: eyes that are closer and oriented forward will have binocularity with superior __ perception due to the __ visual fields of both eyes.
Tapetum
photons
distance
orientation
depth
overlapping
Sound signals are __ stimuli.
__ (long wavelength, deep sound, travels far) and __ (short wavelength, high sound).
Sound causes neuroreceptors to fire at a rate that relates to the __, the __, and the __ of the sound stimulus.
mechanical
Infrasound
ultrasound
intensity
wavelength
direction
What is echolocation used for?
Hunting AND navigation
The __ __ hypothesis proposes that insects are able to hear pulses of bat ultrasound with one ear on each side of the thorax.
ultrasound evasion
Re. noctuid moths:
Farther ultrasonic sounds stimulate __ receptors. The __ receptor that is stimulated (vs. shielded) indicates direction. When a bat is above, the receptors fluctuate in synchrony with the moth’s __; but when a bat is directly behind the moth, both receptors fire at the same __ and __.
When the intensity of stimulus is high (bat is too close), the __ cells fire. Roeder believed that the __ signals shut down regulation of flight & steering motor neurons which would cause evasive maneuvering (unpredictable flight pattern).
A1
A1
wingbeats
rate and time
A2
A2
Weakly electric fish use __: can generate and detect weak __ signals (like ultrasound in bats).
electrolocation
electric
Pit viper have __ detection: they see long frequency light energy (we detect as __).
Infrared detection
heat
__ sense: used as a compass and map to allow long distance navigation using the earth’s __ field.
These animals have __ in their nervous systems.
Magnetic
magnetic
magnetite
Elephants have __ detection (these sounds travel much longer distances).
Infrasound
__ __: groups of interconnected neurons that are able to __ their own activity using a feedback loop
Neural circuit
regulate
Estrildid finch nestlings have many elaborate __ __ which may help parents differentiate their own offspring from those of brood parasites.
mouth markings
Many animals use UV radiation for several reasons:
*__ on male butterflies to attract females
*Evaluation of __ (UV reflectance of __ in male sticklebacks)
*Male-male __ (UV reflectance of lizard mouths)
*Monarch __ – Use UV radiation to initiate __, and polarized light patterns to __ relative to the sun’s position in the sky.
Patches
health
carotenoids
aggression
migration
migration
navigate
Stimulus __: the ability of neurons and neural circuits to __vast amounts of potential information in order to focus on biologically relevant elements.
filtering
filter
Parasitoid female fly is tuned to ultrasonic male cricket mating songs, but male flies are not because why?
Larva feed on the crickets, and since males can’t lay eggs, there’s no need to be tuned to the crickets.
Integration of inputs from a variety of modalities to make decisions as to how to behave is known as a __ __.
Priority setting
Protocerebral ganglion is mantis’ brain; ensures animal does NOT move and grasp by __ the subesophageal ganglion.
If mantis detects specific stimuli (prey), the protocerebral ganglion reduces __ to subesophageal ganglion.
This is an example of a __ behavioral priority setting.
inhibiting
inhibition
nonsequential
Four examples of sequential behaviors include:
1. __-__ cycles (e.g., blowfly feeding cycle)
2. __ (daily) rhythms
3. __ (annual) rhythms
4. __ cycles (also called estrous cycles).
short-term
circadian
circannual
ultradian
Describe the blowfly short-term feeding cycle.
Low blood sugar excites wings ->
Strength of odor (proximity) shuts down wings ->
Taste receptors in feet stimulate extension of proboscis ->
Sugar on proboscis triggers drinking ->
Stretch receptors in a full crop cause drinking to pause and empty into foregut ->
Stretch receptors in foregut cause proboscis to be withdrawn and fly leaves.
When blood sugar drops, cycle repeats
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle of behavior that runs __ of environmental changes (endogenous). In the absence of cues, the behavior becomes __ __.
A __ __ cycle is not matched to environmental cues (e.g., when crickets are in constant light, they will fall into a cycle of about 25 to 26 hours – indicative of an __, circadian rhythm).
independently;
free running
Free running
independent
A __ is a “cue” that the circadian rhythm is usually tied to, like light.
zeitgeber
The role of external stimuli in animal behavior is that it __, or resets, rhythmic cycles.
Animals such as crickets, who are __ __ (due to a constant stimulus) experience __ of their rhythm when their zeitgeber returns.
entrains
free running
entrainment
Neural control of circadian rhythms include the __ lobe in crickets, and the __ in vertebrates.
optic
SCN
The __ clock hypothesis - states that a built-in schedule acts independently of any cues from the animal’s surroundings to control how animals change priorities over time.
The __ stimulus hypothesis states that animals use information from the surrounding environment to change priorities over time.
endogenous
environmental
In two polyphenisms of sand cricket, __ hormone plays an active role in regulation of __ rhythms.
* Long-winged, flight-capable, nocturnally active morph experiences a sharp __ in the hormone in the late afternoon / evening.
* Short-winged, flightless morph is more likely to be active during the day and experiences no change to __ hormone levels.
juvenile
circadian
increase
juvenile
What happens if the connection between the eyes and optic lobe of crickets is severed?
What happens if the optic lobes of a cricket are surgically disconnected from the rest of the brain, and what does this indicate?
The cricket’s circadian rhythm becomes free-running.
The cricket loses its capacity to maintain a circadian rhythm.
The optic lobe plays a critical role in regulating circadian rhythms.
The SCN is made of a pair of __ neural clusters that receive inputs from nerves originating in the __.
hypothalamic; retina
__ is a hormone produced at night by the SCN of mammals.
It modulates both circadian rhythms and sleep (it can “__” the sleep–wake cycle); and it also influences __ reproduction in several mammals.
Melatonin
“reset”
seasonal
Rhythmic activation of the __ gene in the cells of the SCN play a critical role in generating a circadian rhythm.
The __ protein gradually builds up inside and outside the cell nucleus over time. When the __ protein is bound in complexes with __, it cannot be broken down as quickly by CKIe. Therefore, more intact __ is carried back into the nucleus, where it temporarily blocks the activity of the very gene that produces it.
Per
per
PER
TIM
PER
Key clock genes (such as per) which regulate cellular circadian rhythms in mammals are also present in a variety of other organisms, including many insects. What does this indicate?
The per gene is a legacy of a very ancient shared ancestor.
