Exam 2, Modules 4 - 7 Flashcards
The neural network responsible for detecting the simple cue (called a sign stimulus, or releaser) and activating the instinct, (called fixed action pattern), was called the __ __ __ by Tinbergen and Lorenz (both classical ethologists).
innate releasing mechanism
__: The study of the proximate mechanisms and adaptive value of animal behavior.
Ethology
__ : A behavioral pattern that reliably develops in most individuals, promoting a functional response to a __ stimulus the __ time the behavior is performed.
Instinct;
releaser;
first
Fixed action pattern : An __, highly __ response that is fully functional at its __ occurrence.
Triggered by a well-defined, simple __.
Once the pattern is activated, the response is performed in its __.
innate
stereotyped
first
stimulus
entirety
The component of an action or object that triggers a fixed action pattern in an animal is this.
Sign stimulus or releaser
__ stimulus: exaggerated stimuli that can be more effective at eliciting a response than normal stimuli.
supernormal
In a phenomenon called __ __, brood parasite chicks exploit the sensory systems of their hosts to ensure that they get fed, even when the markings fail to match those of their host species’ chicks perfectly.
This phenomenon is a simple relationship between an innate __ mechanism, sign __, and FAP, and is highlighted by the ability of some species to __ the FAPs of other species, a tactic sometimes referred to as code __.
Sensory exploitation (e.g., cuckoo)
releasing
stimulus
exploit
breaking
Explain the FAP of egg retrieval behavior in a graylag goose.
- If egg removed under a goose, goose will stretch its neck, tuck the egg, and roll back into its nest.
- If egg replaced with egg-shaped object, the goose would retrieve.
- If egg/object removed as it was being retrieved, the bird would continue retrieval behavior.
As a result of the egg retrieval behavior in graylag goose, Tinbergen and Lorenz concluded that:
* The goose has perceptual mechanism highly sensitive to __ cues (_-shaped objects).
* This sensory mechanism relays its information to the brain that __ activates a relatively invariant motor program for egg retrieval.
visual
egg
automatically
Experiments with herring gull chicks have revealed that recently hatched chicks __ almost everything except two __ cues: the shape of the “bill” (realistic or just a pencil with dots) and the red dot at the end of it.
ignore
visual
__: “the world as the animal perceives it.”
It includes acquisition of information – animals collect data (aka __), extract info from the data (aka __), and recognize stimuli that are of critical importance (aka __ __).
Umwelt
transduction
coding
feature detection
Light (also called __ energy) serves as a stimulus for information gathering by organisms.
electromagnetic
An exampe of a primitive eye that senses light and direction is the __ __ eye __.
A combination of photoreceptors that are both stimulated and not stimulated convey the __ of the light
Sea worm eye cup
direction
__ eyes permit projection of an image onto receptors.
Three examples include:
1. __ camera eye
2. Vertebrate __ camera eye
3. __ eye (basically an array of eye __ pointed in different directions).
True
- Pinhole
- lens
- Compound; cups
A nautilus has a __ camera eye which is basically an eye __ that developed into a chamber.
Advantage: Achieves true imaging by __ the size of the opening
Disadvantage: poor __
pinhole;
cup
reducing
resolution
Re. vertebrate lens camera eye:
Advantage: high __
Disadvantage: (1) much brain __ is needed for highly detailed visual processing. (2) __ (both __ and __) are densely packed at the fovea (1:1), but outside the fovea, many receptors (mostly __) share a single __.
resolution
space
Receptors (rods and cones)
(rods)
neuron
The __ eye is basically an array of eye cups pointed in different directions.
Advantage (vs. lens camera eye): much more efficient for invertebrates due to its lightweight but higher (than cup eye) __. (1/50 of camera-lens resolution, but 1/__ of weight).
Disadvantage: __ (diffusion) gets worse with __ wavelengths; BUT they can detect __ rays.
Compound
resolution
5000
Diffraction
longer
UV
Each element of a compound eye (the ‘cups’) is called an __.
Ommatidium
In vertebrate lens camera eye, horizontal cells that are receiving intense stimuli from some rods will laterally inhibit other cells that are not receiving as much stimulation in a phenomenon called __ __.
It creates the illusion of a ‘__ band’ of light / darker areas. The evolutionary significance is enhanced __ detection.
Lateral inhibition
mach
edge
__ cells: retinal cells that connect to several receptors (rods and cones) to enhance edge detection.
Horizontal
Specialized adaptations in visual info processing include:
__: reflective membrane at the back of the retina of nocturnal animals’ eyes (glow). Gives escaped __ a second chance to be delivered to rods.
The __ and __ of each eye is what determines binocularity and monocularity: eyes that are closer and oriented forward will have binocularity with superior __ perception due to the __ visual fields of both eyes.
Tapetum
photons
distance
orientation
depth
overlapping
Sound signals are __ stimuli.
__ (long wavelength, deep sound, travels far) and __ (short wavelength, high sound).
Sound causes neuroreceptors to fire at a rate that relates to the __, the __, and the __ of the sound stimulus.
mechanical
Infrasound
ultrasound
intensity
wavelength
direction
What is echolocation used for?
Hunting AND navigation
The __ __ hypothesis proposes that insects are able to hear pulses of bat ultrasound with one ear on each side of the thorax.
ultrasound evasion
Re. noctuid moths:
Farther ultrasonic sounds stimulate __ receptors. The __ receptor that is stimulated (vs. shielded) indicates direction. When a bat is above, the receptors fluctuate in synchrony with the moth’s __; but when a bat is directly behind the moth, both receptors fire at the same __ and __.
When the intensity of stimulus is high (bat is too close), the __ cells fire. Roeder believed that the __ signals shut down regulation of flight & steering motor neurons which would cause evasive maneuvering (unpredictable flight pattern).
A1
A1
wingbeats
rate and time
A2
A2
Weakly electric fish use __: can generate and detect weak __ signals (like ultrasound in bats).
electrolocation
electric
Pit viper have __ detection: they see long frequency light energy (we detect as __).
Infrared detection
heat
__ sense: used as a compass and map to allow long distance navigation using the earth’s __ field.
These animals have __ in their nervous systems.
Magnetic
magnetic
magnetite
Elephants have __ detection (these sounds travel much longer distances).
Infrasound
__ __: groups of interconnected neurons that are able to __ their own activity using a feedback loop
Neural circuit
regulate
Estrildid finch nestlings have many elaborate __ __ which may help parents differentiate their own offspring from those of brood parasites.
mouth markings
Many animals use UV radiation for several reasons:
*__ on male butterflies to attract females
*Evaluation of __ (UV reflectance of __ in male sticklebacks)
*Male-male __ (UV reflectance of lizard mouths)
*Monarch __ – Use UV radiation to initiate __, and polarized light patterns to __ relative to the sun’s position in the sky.
Patches
health
carotenoids
aggression
migration
migration
navigate
Stimulus __: the ability of neurons and neural circuits to __vast amounts of potential information in order to focus on biologically relevant elements.
filtering
filter
Parasitoid female fly is tuned to ultrasonic male cricket mating songs, but male flies are not because why?
Larva feed on the crickets, and since males can’t lay eggs, there’s no need to be tuned to the crickets.
Integration of inputs from a variety of modalities to make decisions as to how to behave is known as a __ __.
Priority setting
Protocerebral ganglion is mantis’ brain; ensures animal does NOT move and grasp by __ the subesophageal ganglion.
If mantis detects specific stimuli (prey), the protocerebral ganglion reduces __ to subesophageal ganglion.
This is an example of a __ behavioral priority setting.
inhibiting
inhibition
nonsequential
Four examples of sequential behaviors include:
1. __-__ cycles (e.g., blowfly feeding cycle)
2. __ (daily) rhythms
3. __ (annual) rhythms
4. __ cycles (also called estrous cycles).
short-term
circadian
circannual
ultradian
Describe the blowfly short-term feeding cycle.
Low blood sugar excites wings ->
Strength of odor (proximity) shuts down wings ->
Taste receptors in feet stimulate extension of proboscis ->
Sugar on proboscis triggers drinking ->
Stretch receptors in a full crop cause drinking to pause and empty into foregut ->
Stretch receptors in foregut cause proboscis to be withdrawn and fly leaves.
When blood sugar drops, cycle repeats
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle of behavior that runs __ of environmental changes (endogenous). In the absence of cues, the behavior becomes __ __.
A __ __ cycle is not matched to environmental cues (e.g., when crickets are in constant light, they will fall into a cycle of about 25 to 26 hours – indicative of an __, circadian rhythm).
independently;
free running
Free running
independent
A __ is a “cue” that the circadian rhythm is usually tied to, like light.
zeitgeber
The role of external stimuli in animal behavior is that it __, or resets, rhythmic cycles.
Animals such as crickets, who are __ __ (due to a constant stimulus) experience __ of their rhythm when their zeitgeber returns.
entrains
free running
entrainment
Neural control of circadian rhythms include the __ lobe in crickets, and the __ in vertebrates.
optic
SCN
The __ clock hypothesis - states that a built-in schedule acts independently of any cues from the animal’s surroundings to control how animals change priorities over time.
The __ stimulus hypothesis states that animals use information from the surrounding environment to change priorities over time.
endogenous
environmental
In two polyphenisms of sand cricket, __ hormone plays an active role in regulation of __ rhythms.
* Long-winged, flight-capable, nocturnally active morph experiences a sharp __ in the hormone in the late afternoon / evening.
* Short-winged, flightless morph is more likely to be active during the day and experiences no change to __ hormone levels.
juvenile
circadian
increase
juvenile
What happens if the connection between the eyes and optic lobe of crickets is severed?
What happens if the optic lobes of a cricket are surgically disconnected from the rest of the brain, and what does this indicate?
The cricket’s circadian rhythm becomes free-running.
The cricket loses its capacity to maintain a circadian rhythm.
The optic lobe plays a critical role in regulating circadian rhythms.
The SCN is made of a pair of __ neural clusters that receive inputs from nerves originating in the __.
hypothalamic; retina
__ is a hormone produced at night by the SCN of mammals.
It modulates both circadian rhythms and sleep (it can “__” the sleep–wake cycle); and it also influences __ reproduction in several mammals.
Melatonin
“reset”
seasonal
Rhythmic activation of the __ gene in the cells of the SCN play a critical role in generating a circadian rhythm.
The __ protein gradually builds up inside and outside the cell nucleus over time. When the __ protein is bound in complexes with __, it cannot be broken down as quickly by CKIe. Therefore, more intact __ is carried back into the nucleus, where it temporarily blocks the activity of the very gene that produces it.
Per
per
PER
TIM
PER
Key clock genes (such as per) which regulate cellular circadian rhythms in mammals are also present in a variety of other organisms, including many insects. What does this indicate?
The per gene is a legacy of a very ancient shared ancestor.
__ rhythms: An annual cycle of behavior that expresses itself independent of environmental changes (predicts __ changes).
Circannual
seasonal
The number of hours of light in a 24-hour period is called the __.
Photoperiod.
Environmental cues that __ behavior are usually light and temperature (aka, __).
entrain
zeitgerbers
The __ __ hypothesis states that animals maintain their gonads in at least partial readiness for much of the year so that if they encounter favorable conditions in their environments, they are able to react more quickly to a chance to reproduce.
Reproductive readiness
Role of hormones on behavior:
The __ effect: immediate but temporary.
The __ effect: hormones permanently affect the nervous system during __ and cause __ changes to physiology and behavior.
Activational
Organizational
development
permanent
The __ hypothesis states that testosterone promotes aggression, but only when it should be most beneficial for __, such as for mate guarding or repelling rival males.
Challenge
reproduction
The __-__-__ (HPG) axis cuases a cascade of reproductive hormones that starts with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), produced in the __, resulting in the release of luteinizing hormone from the __ and eventually of testosterone from the __.
hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal
hypothalamus
pituitary
gonads
Interactions between hormone, photoperiod, behavior in white crown sparrow:
-The males show a __ reproductive pattern of behavior and will attempt to mate with or without circulating testosterone.
-Although the male doesn’t need testosterone to mate, they do need a prolonged __ to demonstrate mating behaviors.
-__ does, however, affect territoriality and aggression.
dissociated
photoperiod
Testosterone
__ reproductive pattern: The onset of reproductive behavior is tightly correlated with seasonal cues that trigger changes in circulating hormones and the gonads
For example, __ who are chill then try to kill each other during mating season; or female anoles who are receptive until they mate (they receive a chemical that affects __ from the male).
***If hormones are removed, behavior __.
Associated
bucks
prostaglandin
stops
__ reproductive pattern: The onset of reproductive behavior is apparently NOT triggered by a sharp change in circulating hormones
For example, the red-sided garter snakes have an orgy after hibernation, but there’s almost no measurable __.
2nd example: __ male sparrows will still demonstrate mating behavior and try to mate with receptive females.
Dissociated
testosterone
Castrated
Active social defenses employed to avoid predators includes:
*__ behavior - group defense strategy that can be costly (injury or death from combating predators).
*__ - sentinels look for predators
*__ __ – can be very descriptive (type of predator, distance, etc.)
Mobbing
Vigilance
Alarm calling
__ is similarity in behavior due to shared common ancestry; therefore, __ does NOT reveal __ significance of behavioral traits.
Homology; homology; adaptive
__: similarity in behavior due to convergence; therefore, __ can illuminate __ significance of a trait.
Analogy; analogy; adaptive
__ evolution: is the __ acquisition (over time through natural selection) of similar characteristics in two or more __ species.
Convergent; independent; unrelated
__ evolution: evolution [by natural selection] of differences between closely-related species that live in different environments and are therefore subject to different __ pressures.
divergent; selective.
Passive social defenses for avoiding predators include:
*__ effect: a hypothesis that states that (associating in groups reduces probability of depridation).
*__ effect: murmuration; moving as a group.
*__ herd: individuals put other individuals between themselves and the predator.
dilution
confusion
selfish
The __ effect is a hypothesis that states that associating in groups makes it less likely that any one individual will be depredated.
dilution
The __ effect hypothesis states that moving as a group may reduce the likelihood of predators capturing prey because of their inability to single out and attack individual __; also includes elements of the __ effect due to numbers.
confusion;
prey;
dilution
The __ __ hypothesis states that individuals in a group (or herd) attempt to reduce their predation risk by putting other individuals between themselves and the predator
selfish herd
Evolutionary __ theory is an evolutionary approach to the study of adaptive value in which the __ for the individuals associated with one behavioral tactic are dependent on what the other members in the group are doing.
game;
payoffs
Explain the general idea behind game theory using solitary prey.
-Population is composed of solitary prey
-Mutant uses others as living shields.
-Solitary animal loses some fitness to the social type.
-Costs to social individuals (mutants) = time spent searching for solitary to hide behind.
-When two socials interact, each have 1:2 chance of being attacked.
How do solitary prey usually avoid depredation?
What are the costs to this strategy?
Camouflaged color patterns along with behavioral tactics (being still) that enhance their concealment.
Time / energy finding background to rest (if available); and time spent immobile / not searching for food or mates..
__ coloration in __ species (e.g., Monarch butterfly) is a warning coloration, in which an organism’s highly visible or vivid coloration signals that it is distasteful or dangerous.
*Cost: very __
*Gains: So noxious and distasteful that birds will let go after grabbing wing / before __.
Aposematic
solitary
conspicuous
killing / consuming
__ mimicry in solitary species: When an __ species resembles a distasteful or dangerous one.
Batesian
edible
__ mimicry in __ species: When two or more distasteful or dangerous species resemble one another.
Both species benefit - mutualistic rather than an exploitative arrangement (like __ mimicry).
Mullerian
solitary
Batesian
The __ __ hypothesis: When a prey’s appearance or behavior activates escape behavior on the part of the predator.
*Example - tephritid fly waves banded wings which mimics the appearance of territorial / aggressive jumping spider which activates the spider’s __ behavior.
signal deception
escape
__ hypothesis states that gazelles stot to look for other predators that may be lying in wait.
Prediction is they will only stot in __ grass. Refuted by observed stotting in __ grass.
Antiambush
tall
short
The __ signal hypothesis states that gazelles stot to __ predation risk to conspecifics.
Refuted by lone animals observed to be stotting.
alarm
communicate / convey
The __ effect hypothesis states that if several gazelles stot simultaneously in a group while fleeing, then the predator may become __.
confusion
confused
The social __ hypothesis states that gazelles stot to get conspecifics to __ them.
Refuted due to gazelles facing white patch towards __, not conspecifics.
cohesion
join
predator
The attack __ hypothesis states that gazelles stot to signal their vigor to potential predators; it is an __ signal to the predator.
deterrence
honest
__ theory is the notion that adaptations have greater __-to-__ ratios than the presumed alternatives that have been replaced by natural selection.
Optimality
benefit-to-cost
A model in the book showed fitness gains and costs plotted on a graph, with the distance between both functions measured. What theory was this graph conveying?
What was the significance of the distances between the functions (gains and costs)?
Optimality theory (model)
Some traits had a higher fitness value than the “optimal” trait, but their costs were such that the net benefit was less than the optimal trait.
Quails form groups call coveys. Overall group vigilance (antipredator behavior) increases with increasing group size, but benefits level off around a group size of 10, and begins to decrease with higher numbers (Gaussian curve). What does this suggest about the group size, and what theory explains this?
The “Goldilocks” group size is around 10 members.
Optimality theory
__ __ theory makes predictions about how animals maximize fitness while foraging. It address several related topics:
-__ of food type, patch choice, time spent in different patches, or patterns and speed of movement.
-Basically, food = energy intake, but finding food = time and energy locating it (__ time) and accessing it (__ time).
Therefore, energy is the __ used in most __ __ models, and energy gain per cost is what is being optimized.
Optimal foraging
Optimization
search
handling
currency
optimal foraging
Explain the optimal foraging strategies employed by crows feeding on whelks.
Crows pick up only large whelks (increase calories)
They drop whelks from a height of about 5 meters: minimizes energy spent, and cracks most shells.
Exceptions to optimal foraging models include dugongs and some species of ants. Explain.
Dugongs feed on sea grasses by:
-cropping (quick)
-excavation (more nutients, unable to mantain vigilance against sharks).
Some ants have different head sizes, so optimal foraging is skewed smaller heads during the day (less visible to parasitizing wasps) and larger heads at night.
A __ of fear is a spatially explicit elicitation of fear in prey when cues in the environment (odors, alarm calls) lead to the perceived risk of predation.
For example, dugongs foraging in an area known to have a lot of sharks will use the cropping method of foraging in order to maintain __.
Landscape
vigilance
__-__ selection occurs when the fitness of one strategy is a function of its __ relative to a different behavioral trait.
It is a form of natural selection in which individuals belonging to the __ common of two types are more fit because of their __ frequency.
When fitness is __, the phenotype decreases as it becomes more common; when __ the phenotype increases as it becomes more common.
Frequency-dependent
frequency
less
lower
negative
positive
Regarding frequency-dependent selection, what happens when both phenotypes reach equilibrium?
the two types of individuals will coexist indefinitely and have equal fitness.
Name the 3 behaviors involved in habitat selection.
- Territoriality
- Dispersal
- Migration
The defense of a preferred area is this.
Territoriality
The one-way movement from natal area is this.
Dispersal
Long distance movements, or an extreme form of dispersal, but it’s two-way (leave and return annually) is this.
Migration
List 3 types of territories.
- All-purpose
- Nesting
- Mating
This territory is a display site where males gather. The territory is small and lacks resources, but it only serves to attract mates.
Mating territory.
Benefits of territoriality: Use of __ on territory without interference, familiarity with area, increased __ success.
Costs: Defense of territory / patrolling takes __ and includes risk of injury; marking territory.
resources
reproductive
energy
When are animals typically territorial? Why have a specific period of territoriality?
During breeding season.
Territoriality has many costs, so it only makes sense when the benefits (reproductive success) outweigh the costs.
What is a potential benefit of dispersal?
inbreeding avoidance
The independent acquisition over time through natural selection of similar characteristics in two or more unrelated species is this.
convergent evolution
The evolution by natural selection of differences between closely related species that live in different environments and are therefore subject to different selection pressures is this.
divergent evolution
__ __ __: That set of rules of behavior that when adopted by a certain proportion of the population cannot be replaced by any alternative strategy.
Evolutionarily stable strategy
Predicted conditions under which migration might be a “conditional strategy” include:
-Behavioral __
-__ can’t support the population in its entirety during harsh seasons
-Subordinates choose migration over challenge if __-__-__ __ is too high.
-Dominants stay rather than expend energy __.
plasticity
Habitat
cost-to-benefit ratio
migrating
How do young birds find the wintering site in their first migratory flight?
How were experimenters able to prove this?
They use the North Star (Polaris) to orient their direction (compass sense).
If chicks reared with rotation around Betelgeuse, they headed west (away from Betelgeuse) rather than south (away from Polaris).
A __ combines learned landmarks with sense direction
A __ guides an animal towards a specific direction (NSWE)
map
compass
__ sense: experience develops a cognitive representation of various sensory stimuli.
Map
4 types of migratory maps are:
- Infrasonic
- Olfactory
- Visual
- Magnetic
This map uses long sound waves created by ocean waves and pressure reflected off of elevation.
Infrasonic
An __ map uses odors unique to the animal’s natal territory.
olfactory
This map is used by diurnal migrants to create a cognitive map or memorization of landmarks.
Visual
How do animals use a magnetic ‘map’ to migrate?
The magnetic field has unique characteristics that identify specific locations.
-magnetic inclination angle – vertical or horizontal depending on latitude
-magnetic intensity
__ sense uses celestial cues, such as a star compass or a sun compass, and magnetic cues to navigate.
Compass
__ __ __ theory predicts what animals might do when choosing between habitats of different quality in the face of competition for space, food, or other critical resources.
Ideal free distribution
According to ideal free distribution theory, if individuals were free to distribute themselves spatially in relation to resource __ and the intensity of __ from conspecifics, then as the density of conspecifics in the __ habitat increased, an individual could gain higher fitness by settling for a __ habitat with fewer conspecific competitors.
quality
competition
superior
subpar
__-__ habitat selection: When settlement decisions are influenced by the intensity of intraspecific competition as reflected by the density of conspecifics in a location
Density-dependent
Territory vs. home range?
A territory is a defended area with sole access to its resources; a home range is an undefended area where resources are shared.
Why are home ranges undefended?
The cost-to-benefit ratio is too high (off season / not mating season, so there’s no fitness benefit).
__ defensibility describes the trade-off in costs versus benefits for maintaining a territory.
Economic
The inherent capacity of an individual to defeat others (who are less healthy / robust) when competing for useful resources is known as its __ __ __.
resource holding potential
One of the reasons why established territory holders may have more to gain than challengers is that boundary disputes with neighbors usually get settled with the passage of time, with the result that neighbors treat familiar rivals as “__ __”; known as the __ __ effect.
dear enemies
dear enemies
The hypothetical mechanism that connects an FAP to a sign stimulus (AKA releaser) is this.
innate releasing mechanism
Active defense from predators include what three techniques?
What three techniques constitute passive defense?
Mobbing, vigilance, and alarm calling.
Dilution, confusion, and selfish herd
What’s the difference between Evolutionarily Stable Strategy (ESS) and Evolutionary Game Theory (EGT)?
ESS is a strategy that is stable; it can’t be invaded by another strategy.
EGT deals with the success of a strategy that is contingent on the phenotype of others in the environment (and the strategies they employ).
__ __: how some animal’s behavioral repertoire remains organized.
priority setting
What is a conditional foraging strategy, and when might it be employed?
It’s a strategy that is employed contingent on the conditions of the environment.
It might be employed when there is a landscape of fear, or when there is a social hierarchy (as in sandpipers who pick thru seaweed vs. turning rocks).
