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Comparative Animal Behavior CBH4024 > Exam 1, Modules 1 - 3 > Flashcards

Exam 1, Modules 1 - 3 Flashcards

1
Q

__ is said to have occurred if there is a change in gene frequencies from one generation to the next.

__ theory forms the foundation for the study of animal behavior.

A

Evolution

Evolutionary

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2
Q

__ __ is the process that occurs when individuals vary in their hereditary traits, and their differences correlate to differences in __ success. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as __ __ success.

__ __ can produce evolutionary change, but it is NOT itself evolution. Rather, it __ evolutionary change.

A

Natural selection; reproductive.
differential reproductive success.

Natural selection.
drives.

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3
Q

Natural selection works on the __, not the whole __.

Behavior that evolved for the good of the group is called __ __ theory. This theory examines __ attributes that affect the survival chances of the group. The theory states that __ behavior leads to increased __ of the group.

A

individual; species

group selection.
collective.
altruistic; fitness

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4
Q

List and describe the 3 conditions for evolutionary changes to occur.

A
  1. Variation - in individual traits.
  2. Differential reproductive success - where some individuals with a given trait have more offspring than others.
  3. Heritability - the traits that enable improved reproductive success must be heritable.
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5
Q

__ is a measure of how successful an individual is at passing on its heritable traits to the next generation.

__ is dependent on both __ and __.

A

Fitness.

Fitness; survival; reproduction

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6
Q

Some individuals with particular traits are able to have more offspring than others; this is said to be __ __ __.

A

Differential reproductive success.

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7
Q

__ are heritable traits that confer higher fitness than other traits.

__ are associated with successful survival and reproduction, and they are that which __ __ acts.

A

Adaptations

Adaptations; natural selection.

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8
Q

__ are regions of DNA that encode traits.

__ are variations of a specific __.

A

Genes

alleles; gene.

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9
Q

A __ is the genetic constitution of an individual (either specific __ of a gene or the __ set of genes).

A __ are the aspects of an individual that arise due to interaction of __ with __.

Natural selection acts on an individuals’ __; it does not [directly] select __.

A

genotype; alleles; complete.

phenotype; genes; environment.

phenotypes; genes

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10
Q

The foundational idea of evolution is a phrase Darwin called ‘__ with __’. It states that individuals pass varied genetic traits to offspring, and differences in __ __ cause evolution to occur over time.

A

‘descent with modification’;
reproductive success

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11
Q

The __ __ includes observation, measurement, and experimentation to test a __ by seeing if __ that were derived from the __ is correct.

A

scientific method; hypothesis; predictions; hypothesis.

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12
Q

List the 7 steps of the scientific method [OCHPEDC].

A
  1. Observation
  2. Causal questions
  3. Hypothesis
  4. Prediction
  5. Experimentation
  6. Data analysis
  7. Conclusions (results and significance)
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13
Q

Fitness __ are the negative effects of a trait on the number of progeny thereby reducing the number of alleles contributed to the next generation.

Fitness __ are the positive effects of a trait on reproductive (and genetic) success.

Fitness __ must be greater than fitness __ for adaptations to rise.

A

costs

benefits

benefits; costs

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14
Q

A trait that contributes to fitness is said to have __ value.

A

adaptive

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15
Q

Traits that appear to reduce fitness are sometimes called __ __.

Examples are __ in langurs and lions. The __ hypothesis explains how this behavior improves reproductive fitness: males enhance their ability to reproduce and do so more quickly.

A

Darwinian puzzles.

infanticide.
infanticide

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16
Q

Levels of analysis include __ causes and __ causes for behavior.

Proximal causes focus on __ and __ which, with the environment, produce the phenotype. Proximate causes also focus on __ causes, such as hormones and neurological mechanisms; and also __ mechanisms, such as process of learning during development.

__ causes focus on the role of evolutionary __ and its influence on the __ value of behavior (or the manner in which traits increase __).

A

proximate; ultimate

genetics; development.
physiological; psychological

Ultimate; history; adaptive; fitness.

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17
Q

What 3 approaches can be used to study behavior?

A
  1. Observational
  2. Experimental
  3. Comparative
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18
Q

Using the __ approach to study behavior, one defines, records and relates behaviors to features of the animals’ social or ecological __.

It is for this reason that the approach is said to be __; it is important not to draw conclusions (__ ≠ __).

A

Observational; environments

correlational; correlation ≠ causation

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19
Q

Using the __ approach to studying behavior, scientists manipulate the animal’s environment.

It can be done in a lab or in the filed if designed carefully to account for all of the natural __ in nature.

A

experimental.

variation

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20
Q

Using the __ approach to studying behavior, scientists infer the __ significance of behavior by comparing many different species to look for general __ of behavior to determine why behaviors evolved.

For this reason, the __ approach provides evolutionary __ and evolutionary __.

A

comparative; adaptive; patterns.

comparative; history; constraints.

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21
Q

__ __: includes characteristics that extinct/ancestral species may have had, and how those traits give rise to the ones we see in extant species; requires a __.

A

evolutionary history; phylogeny

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22
Q

This ‘tree’ describes historical relationship using anatomy, physiology, or behavioral traits.

When using DNA (mtDNA or nuclear), it is called this.

A

Phylogeny.

Phylogenetic.

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23
Q

Restrictions, limitations, or biases to the outcome of adaptive evolution on the appearance of the trait are this.

A

evolutionary constraints.

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24
Q

In Tinbergen’s study of black-headed gulls, what was the significance of their behavior regarding egg shells in or near the nests? What was his hypothesis?

A

The gulls were removing shells.

Hypothesis: the presence of egg shells endangers the eggs/brood.

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25
Q

The __ __ hypothesis is the idea that mobbing potential predators distracts them from depredating nests.

A

predatory distraction hypothesis

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26
Q

Kruuk’s experiment with chicken eggs employed the __ and __ approaches to studying behavior.

He found a [directly proportional] correlation between the amount of __ behavior and egg protection.

A

observational and experimental.

mobbing

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27
Q

__ evolution: is the __ acquisition (over time through natural selection) of similar characteristics in two or more __ species.

A

Convergent; independent; unrelated

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28
Q

__ evolution: evolution [by natural selection] of differences between closely-related species that live in different environments and are therefore subject to different __ pressures.

A

divergent; selective.

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29
Q

Divergence and convergence can both illuminate what about behavior?

A

Their adaptive significance.

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30
Q

__ is similarity in behavior due to shared common ancestry; therefore, __ does NOT reveal __ significance of behavioral traits.

A

Homology; homology; adaptive

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31
Q

__: similarity in behavior due to convergence; therefore, __ can illuminate __ significance of a trait.

A

Analogy; analogy; adaptive

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32
Q

Tinbergen developed a scheme of four questions to address the __ and __ causes of behavior.

Within the __ level, questions relate to (1) __ and (2) internal __; and they answer “how” questions.

Within the __ level, questions relate to (3) evolutionary __ and (4) __ function; and they answer “why” questions.

A

proximate; ultimate

proximate; development; mechanisms

ultimate; history; adaptive

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33
Q

Proximate causes of behavior answer “__”; ultimate causes of behavior answer “__”.

A

how; why

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34
Q

The integration of __ theory and __ is known as the modern synthesis.

It became the “law of the land”, and __ was largely ignored.

A

evolutionary; genetics.

development

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35
Q

Taking an __ approach to studying animal behavior means considering __ levels of analysis, such as the ‘how’ (proximate) and the why (ultimate) reasons for behavior.

A

integrative;multiple

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36
Q

Label the following as P (proximate) or U (ultimate) questions:
1. Is the song inherited from parents?
2. Do all males sing to attract a mate? Or to deter a rival?
3. What is the significance of dialects?
4. Do songs signal species membership to females thereby preventing hybridization?
5. How has development from single- to multicellular organism affected song?
6. How did song evolve to begin with?
7. How are nervous and muscular systems integrated to enable the development of the proper song?
8. Did different songs develop in response to pressures to propagate a signal in different habitats?

A
  1. P
  2. U
  3. U
  4. U
  5. P
  6. U
  7. P
  8. U
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37
Q

“Differences in gene-environment interactions” vs. “differences in gene-environment interactions in individuals” - which is proximate, which is ultimate?

A

The first is proximate, the second is ultimate (due to genes being transmitted to the next generation).

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38
Q

A sound __ (aka __) is a visual representation of sound frequencies over time.

__ is shown using color or grayscale.

A

spectrogram; sonogram

Intensity

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39
Q

T or F: Differences in bird song dialects are due to genetic differences in breeding populations (subspecies).

Explain.

A

False:
Young males will learn the song of their tutor during the critical period.

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40
Q

T or F: Differences in bird song dialect are due to experience during critical period of development.

A

True:
Young males need to hear their tutor AND THEMSELVES to develop song.

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41
Q

T or F: Young male white-crowned sparrows can emulate the song of different species when exposed to recordings of the song during the critical period.

A

False:
They must hear AND SEE their tutor if the song is from another species (opposite of conspecific songs).

42
Q

A special sensitive period, called the __ period, is when neural systems can acquire information from listening to their own species’ song (__-__ day hatchlings for white-crowned sparrows).

Exposure during this period is necessary for song development; however, no additional exposure necessary from __-__ days; however, he must be able to __ himself!

A

critical; 10-50.

50 – 150; hear

43
Q

Development of song in white crowned sparrow:
__-__ day = critical period
__-__ day = learning period (deafness at this stage will prevent learning)
__-__ day = plastic song
__ days = full song

A

10-50
50 - 150
150-200
>200

44
Q

The underlying neural mechanisms for development of bird song starts with the __ __ __ (HVC) which projects to the __ __ of the archistriatum (RA), and the RA projects to the __ nerve, (AKA the __ cranial nerve) to innervate the __ (analogous to a larynx).

An additional nucleus, called the lateral __ nucleus of the anterior __/striatum (LMAN), plays a role in song learning such that inhibition in adults __ affects song, but damage to developing males results in __ song disruption.

A

High vocal center; robust nucleus; hypoglossal; XII; syrinx.

magnocellular; nidopallium; temporarily; permanent.

45
Q

Sex differences in song nuclei: there are no differences from hatchling to ~ __ days, but after this time, males develop dense nuclei while neurons in female nuclei undergo __.

A

15; apoptosis

46
Q

The __ adaptation hypothesis states that a young male that learns his song from his older neighbors might then generate songs that travel farther and with less __ than if he sang another dialect better suited to a different __ environment

A

environmental; degradation; acoustic

47
Q

The __ hypothesis states that vocal learning allows vocal signals to become more recognizable and thereby promotes __ of neighbors or social cohesion within groups (via group, kin, or individual recognition).

This hypothesis is based on the idea that birds need to __ others, be it their neighbors as competitors, their group mates as allies, or sometimes even specific individuals.

A

recognition; identification.

recognize

48
Q

The __-__ hypothesis states that vocal learning enables __ of the vocal repertoire in systems where living with kin favors greater information sharing.

A

information-sharing; expansion

49
Q

According to the sexual selection hypothesis, vocal learning enables increases in the __ of the vocal repertoire that is used in __-__ competition or is favored by __ preferences.

A

complexity; male–male; female

50
Q

In male-male competition, male songbirds can control the level of __ using vocal repertoire via three means: (1) they can __-__ (elevates aggression); (2) they can __ match with a song type from a shared __ (intermediate aggression); (3) or they can use a __ response using an __ song (de-escalatory).

A

conflict; type-match; repertoire; repertoire; mismatched; unshared

51
Q

In the female choice version of sexual selection, females can use __ to secure healthier males (as in Tioga Pass, Ca. where local dialect has a reduced infection rate with a __ __).

Or females can use __ information to ascertain __ history (correlation between __ repertoire, larger HVC, higher body __, and better overall health).

A

dialects; blood parasite.

dialectal; developmental; larger; fat

52
Q

Tinbergen’s four major categories for explanations of animal behavior are (1) the underlying __; (2) the organismal life history, or __; (3) the __ __ of a particular trait; and (4) the __ or evolutionary history.

A

mechanisms; ontogeny; adaptive function; phylogeny

53
Q

The __ theory of __ suggests that the development of behavioral traits—or any other traits for that matter—requires both __ information and __ inputs (as opposed to either/or).

A

Interactive; development; genetic; environmental

54
Q

List and describe the 2 types of epigenetic modifications. Include their function on elements.

A
  1. DNA Methylation: suppresses transcription
  2. Histone mods: methylation of histone amino acids. Can suppress or increase transcription.
55
Q

How do histone modifications work?

A

They suppress or enhance gene expression contingent on which amino acid is methylated and how many methyl groups are attached.

56
Q

The __ __ hypothesis states that if individuals can learn their own smell, then they can use this information as a reference against which to compare the odors of other individuals, and discriminate between __ and non-__.

A

Armpit effect; kin; kin

57
Q

In order to assess __ discrimination in Belding’s ground squirrels, Mateo split the offspring and let them sniff cubes with the scent of kin and strangers.

This experiment, called a __-__ experiment, demonstrated that __ discrimination is not innate; rather early learning during __ teaches __ discrimination.

A

kin

cross-fostering; kin; development; kin

58
Q

Environmental differences accounting for behavioral differences include the __ effect hypothesis: this supports the idea that learning about one’s environment shapes behavior.

A

armpit

59
Q

Evidence for learning during development include:
1. __ - early social interactions during a critical period of development
2. __ routes - some species, like cranes, follow parents during their first __.
3. __ learning - predators teach young how to hunt; Some migration is learned, songs of songbirds…
4. __ choices – learning what is safe to eat

A

Imprinting
Migratory; migration
Social;
Food

60
Q

Berthold’s study of blackcap warblers (lab rearing experiments) showed the following results when placing them in an __ cage:
-German/Scandinavian warblers flew in a westward direction (toward W. Africa)
-Hungarian warblers flew eastward (toward E. Africa).
-Hybridized flow due south.
This is evidence of __ differences accounting for __ differences.

A

Emlen

genetic; behavioral

61
Q

Berthold’s study of blackcap warblers in an Emlen cage show that __ differences can produce behavioral differences; however, the behavior is NOT __.

Natural selection acts on the __, and the __ is the product of a species-typical genes interact with species-typical environment - aka __.

A

genetic

phenotype, phenotype; ontogeny

62
Q

The development of the ability to learn is called __ and depends on specialized features of the brain, which in turn arise developmentally through the interplay between genes and key elements of the animal’s __ environment.

A

imprinting; social

63
Q

__ imprinting describes offspring-parent relationship. Examples include zebra __, sheep __, and a crane imprinting on a __ object.

A

Filial.

stripes; odor; moving

64
Q

Some animals learn about species-specific behavior from the imprinted object, such as a crane being induced into ovulation by its imprinted human. This special case is called __ imprinting.

A

sexual

65
Q

__ aversion can be learned in animals like rats.

When is it possible for a rat to learn a taste aversion in mother’s milk? When is it NOT possible?

A

Taste.

Rats will learn an aversion when ARTIFICIALLY fed the milk with a novel taste.
Rats will NOT learn aversion to novel tastes while suckling from mother.

66
Q

Evidence for learning requiring genes and environment comes from a cross fostering experiment with blue tits and great tits. Explain.

A

Some individuals of both species became imprinted on another foster species, but the degree to which individuals imprinted on their foster parents differed between the two species of songbirds.

67
Q

Predetermined __ is a theory states that an organism’s fate is determined at conception and that all of the __ steps are laid out in advance.

A

epigenesis; development

68
Q

Genetic __ is a theory stating that an organism is fully __ at conception and that reproduction is thereafter simply a process of growth.

A

preformationism; formed

69
Q

Gottlieb proposed an __ theory of development stating that development is the product of bidirectional interaction between biological and environmental force.

This idea known as probabilistic __ and is perhaps more accurate than the central __ of biology.

A

interactive

epigenesis; dogma

70
Q

Alterations to the genome that do not change the nucleotide sequence is know as this.

A

Epigenetics

71
Q

A gene shared by honey bees and Drosophila (which codes for __) contributes to the development of castes in bees and also the development of large body size in Drosophila.

This shared set of genes that developmentally lead to similar phenotypes forms the crux of the __-__ approach.

A

Royalactin

evo-devo

72
Q

The epigenetic changes in rats born to bad mothers include increased methylation of __: a gene that codes for __ receptors.

This was confirmed using __-__ experiments - offspring of bad mothers had high methylation and vice versa.

A

NR3C1; cortisol

cross-fostering.

73
Q

Methylation patterns in human children of abusive parents show increased methyl groups on __ (a cortisol receptor) and __ (a serotonin transporter).

These epigenetic changes correlate to increased __; decreased long-lasting __; and increased incidence of __ and __ (diseases).

A

NR3C1; SLC6A4

depression; relationships; CVD; diabetes

74
Q

The Developmental __ hypothesis states that individuals born in low quality environments [such as malnutrition] experience reduced __ later in life.

The causes are __ in nature. This demonstrates that the fetus actively participates in its __ and adjusts its physiology according to the world into which it will be born.

A

constraint; fitness

epigenetic;
development

75
Q

The __ __ response hypothesis states that individuals adjust their phenotype during development to match predicted conditions later in life.

A

predictive adaptive

76
Q

The Dutch famine winter demonstrated how environmental conditions, such as famine, influences the __.

What were they ‘prepared’ for? What characteristics were manifested as a result?

A

epigenome

They were prepared for a famine.
Their characteristics were maladaptive when the lean times abated: metabolic syndrome and personality disorders.

77
Q

__ genes (aka __ genes) are the chief architect of genes shared among many organisms from __ to humans.

They are critical for developmental __ (segments in __, head/tail orientation in __, etc.), and are therefore highly conserved and must have originated in a very distant __ ancestor.

A

Hox; homeobox; drosophila

organization; insects; mammals; common

78
Q

A __ is a special type of phenotypic plasticity (aka __ plasticity) where __ phenotypes arise from a single genotype contingent upon __ changes during development.

__ are differences in genetic trait, such as an allele or SNP (e.g., blood group antigens).

A

Polyphenism; developmental; discrete; epigenetic

Polymorphisms

79
Q

A caste of queens and workers (daughters) are __ the same, but a diet of royal jelly fed during larval __ determines the phenotype.

This is an example of developmental (phenotypic) __ as an interaction between genes and environment during development.

A

genetically; development

plasticity

80
Q

In bees, __ __ is what distinguishes a young nurse and an older forager.

Microarray analysis shows expression of neural genes that match the bee’s __ (young/old nurses and young/old foragers show similar expression patterns).

A

juvenile hormone

caste

81
Q

Although rats can easily learn that certain taste cues will be followed by sensations of nausea and that certain sounds will be followed by skin pain caused by shock, they have great difficulty forming learned associations when the __ is experienced (taste and skin pain or sound and nausea).

This is evidence for __ in taste aversion learning.

A

inverse

Biases

82
Q

Some factors that influence the development of polyphenisms include:
1. __ __ fed to bee larvae
2. __ __ (nurse vs. forager bees)
3. Seasonal __ (differences cause some proteins to fold differently affecting phenotype).
4. Availability of __ (as is the case with cannibalistic salamanders).
5. __ cues (solitary v. gregarious locusts)

A

Royal jelly
juvenile hormone
temperatures
resources
Social

83
Q

3 environmental conditions must exist for canabalistic polyphenism to demonstrate in salamanders:
1. __: Many larvae living together
2. __: The larvae differ in __
3. __: The population consists of __ individuals

A

Tactile
Visual; size
Chemical (odor - armpit effect hypothesis); unrelated

84
Q

__-__ polyphenisms: the presence or activity of predators (as detected by kairomones) contributes to the development of an __ phenotype. (E.g., soldier of some aphids, water flea Daphnia, barnacles).

Fitness __ include increased resistance to depredation.
Fitness __ include fewer eggs, less robustness.

A

Predator-dependent; antipredator

gains

losses

85
Q

__ norms are the pattern of phenotypes an individual may develop upon exposure to different environments.

For example, some butterflies with spring and summer morphs injected with 20E (hormone controlled by light and temperature) can produce experimentally-elicited __ norm not found in the wild!

A

Reaction

reaction

86
Q

Solitary vs gregarious locusts:
Solitary polyphenism is green and exist when there is a __ population density.
Gregarious polyphenism (aka migratory) is yellow and black and exists when there is a __ population density. Development is contingent on 3 stimuli (__, __, and __). Females apply foam to eggs to produce more gregarious forms which indicates that the epigenetic changes are __.

A

low

high;
visual, chemical, tactile
heritable

87
Q

__ __ genes produce mRNA for inducer or suppressor transcription factors that regulate one or more __ genes downstream.
Like hox genes, they tend to be highly conserved - inserting a human __ gene for eye development into ‘eyeless’ fruit fly triggers the development of fruit fly eyes!!!

__ genes produce mRNA for __ proteins, such as keratin; they produce “building materials”.

A

Developmental regulatory; structural

regulatory

Structural, structural

88
Q

__ early genes are regulatory genes that are important in the response of the genome to experiential (observable) effects. Examples include:
__: species-typical vocalizations.
__: neuronal plasticity and formation of LTM; __ rhythms, spatial memory. Downregulation implicated in __ disease.
__: increases in forebrain areas and is involved in communication, especially song-related memories.

A

Immediate

FOXP2;
CREB; circadian; Alzhiemer
ZENK;

89
Q

In evo-devo, __ refers to relatively minor differences in the timing and ordering of gene activity during __ development compared to its ancestors or other organisms.

__ accounts for morphological variability among many phyla (rather than proportional changes to __).

A

heterochrony; embryonic

heterochrony; coding / genetic changes

90
Q

__ is the retention of juvenile features into adulthood.

__ is found in modern humans compared to other primates.
- We look more like their __.
- We retain __ of behavior.
-Our brains develop more __ allowing for extra time (before adolescence and pruning of neurons) for learning skills

A

Neoteny

Neoteny
juveniles
plasticity
slowly

91
Q

Heritability (h) is a __ statistic that looks at the proportion of total variability of trait that is due to __ variability.
•(h) does not measure the __ of a gene to the development of individuals.
•(h) is not a measure of __ or developmental fixity of a behavior.
•(h) changes as the __ or __ changes.

A

population; genetic

contribution
innateness
population; environment

92
Q

Nature-nurture: there are no behaviors that are “learned” without involvement of the animal’s __ makeup, just as there are no behaviors that are “genetic” without involvement of the species-typical __.

A

genetic; environment

93
Q

__ is a product of multiple interacting causes: social environment, hormone and pheromones; diet; etc.

A

Behavior

94
Q

__ influences are one important factor in expression of phenotypes, but not the only factor as the existence of __ clearly demonstrate.

A

Genetic; polyphenisms

95
Q

Development is context sensitive - how an __ affects development depends on the current state of the developing system.

In many cases, the __ occurs in a specific time frame to produce its effects (think conception/embryonic stage vs. neonates in Dutch __).

A

experience

experience; famine

96
Q

Organisms inherit __ for development (e.g., they “inherit” a species-typical __ as well as a species-typical genome).

The moth that develops the catkin-phenotype has inherited a species-typical __ that permits this development.

A

resources; environment

environment

97
Q

The developing system extends to include influences outside of the organism, including the __ environment.

Stimuli from conspecifics and predators can play a major role in determining the ultimate phenotype, including __ learning.

A

social

social

98
Q

Just as there are no “__” behaviors without environmental input during development, there are no “__” behaviors without genetic inputs.

A

genetic; learned

99
Q

Evolution involves change over time in the entire __ system - not just the __.

A

developmental; genes

100
Q

__ (evolutionary history and development) is just a series of __ (development from embryo to adult).

A

Phylogeny; ontogenies

101
Q

The theory of __ states that an individual is developed by successive differentiation of an unstructured egg rather than by a simple enlarging of a preformed entity.

A

epigenesis

102
Q

__ refers to all the developmental events that occur during the existence of a living organism (organismal life history).

A

ontogeny

Comparative Animal Behavior CBH4024 (15 decks)

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