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BIO 110 > exam 2 (lecture slides) > Flashcards

exam 2 (lecture slides) Flashcards

unfinished- only went up to the 3rd chapter of the unit (cell membrane)

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1
Q

what are transport vesicles

A

helps move materials, especially proteins from one organelle to another

  • distributed by the rough er
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2
Q

what is the endoplasmic reticulum + the 2 types

A
  • cell’s “highway”
  • membrane of interconnected tubules that carry stuff around the cell

two types:

rough ER: synthesis and packaging of proteins
- bumpy because ribosomes are attached to it

smooth ER: has enzymes that help create and package lipids and also detoxifying substances

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3
Q

what are centrosomes + centrioles

A

kinda look like pasta, organize microtubules out of proteins

  • in animal cells, centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

plants don’t have centrioles, only centrosomes

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4
Q

selective permeability in the cell membrane

A

chooses what goes in and out

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5
Q

what is the cytoplasm

A

solution of water and nutrients that fills the cell

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6
Q

what is the cytoskeleton

A

inside the cytoplasm- bunch of protein strands that reinforce the cell

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7
Q

what is nucleoplasm

A

nucleus has its own cytoplasm (premium luxury environment)

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8
Q

cis and trans Golgi apparatus

A

cis: means same
- part of the Golgi apparatus nearest to ER (endoplasmic reticulum), functions primarily in receiving and sorting molecules

trans: means opposite
- part of Golgi farthest from ER, functions in final modifications of proteins before they’re shipped out`

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9
Q

what is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

“post office of cell city”

  • processes proteins + packages them before sending them where they need to go
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10
Q

what are Golgi bodies and how is their function different from the Golgi apparatus?

A
  • stacks of membranous layers within the Golgi apparatus (Golgi apparatus layers)
  • often used interchangeably though

cut up large proteins into smaller hormones and combine proteins and carbs to make various molecules

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11
Q

what are lysosomes?

A

sacs of enzymes that break down cellular waste and debris from outside cell to turn into simpler components for inside cell

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12
Q

what are vesicles

A

sacs that little goodies are packaged into

  • used to ship stuff within cell or outside cell
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13
Q

what is autophagy?

A

lysosomes use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules

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14
Q

what are vacuoles and the 3 different types of them

A

“diverse maintenance compartments” - storage cells that perform variety of functions

food vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis (when cell engulfs another cell), help digest and break down ingested food

contractile vacuoles: found in freshwater protists, help maintain internal water balance by pumping excess water out of cell

central vacuoles: large ones found in many mature plant cells, store water and nutrients, provide structural support + other functions

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15
Q

what is the function of the mitochondria?

A

cellular respiration!

  • use oxygen to generate ATP
  • cells that need more power (such as muscle cells) have more mitochondria in them
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16
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for mitochondria?

A

maternal b/c mitochondria self replicates so DNA never mixes with the father’s

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17
Q

what is unique about mitochondria compared to other organelles?

A

acts like its own cell, does its own replication and even has some DNA

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18
Q

function of the chloroplasts

A

also energy!!

  • sites of photosynthesis
  • found in plants and algae
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19
Q

3 similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts

A
  • enveloped by a double membrane
  • contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
  • grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
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20
Q

endosymbiont theory

A

idea that some organelles inside eukaryotic cells (like mitochondria and chloroplasts) were once independent, free-living bacteria

  • bacteria engulfed by larger cells, instead of being digested, formed mutually beneficial relationship with the host cell
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21
Q

what are cristae

A

folds in the inner membrane of a mitochondria

  • present a large surface area for enzymes to synthesize ATP
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22
Q

what are chloroplasts known for

A

site of photosynthesis

  • contain green pigment chlorophyll
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23
Q

3 things plants contain that animal cells don’t

A
  • cell wall
  • plastids
  • large vacuole
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24
Q

purpose of the large vacuole in plant cells

A

used for storage but also:

pushes water to create turgor pressure so cell stays nice and rigid

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25
Q

what are plastids? (difference from chloroplasts)

A

group of plant organelles (such as chloroplasts) in cytoplasm of plant cell that contain pigment or food

most important type of plastid: chloroplast

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26
Q

2 main parts of a chloroplast

A

thylakoids: membranous sacs that capture light to turn into ATP solar panels of the cell
- stack to form granum

stroma: internal fluid that contains enzymes to use chemical energy to produce sugar kitchen of the cell, uses products to assemble

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27
Q

do plant cells have mitochondria?

A

yes, they have both mitochondria and chloroplast (chloroplasts are used for photosynthesis only)

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28
Q

how are mitochondria and chloroplasts similar?

A
  • both have double-membrane
  • have their own DNA and manufacture ribosomes
  • grow and divide independently of cell division
  • energy producing organelles
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29
Q

photosynthesis (chloroplasts) vs. cellular respiration (mitochondria)

A
  • photosynthesis builds glucose by capturing energy from the sun and stores the glucose for later use
  • cellular respiration breaks down glucose to ATP and for use within the cell
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30
Q

peroxisomes

A

“clean-up crew”

  • responsible for breaking down toxic substances, primarily hydrogen peroxide
  • destroys alcohol by removing hydrogen atoms
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31
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of fibers that organizes structures & activities in the cell

  • cell mobility usually requires interaction with of the cytoskeleton w/ motor proteins

3 components:
- microtubules
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments

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32
Q

motor proteins

A

specialized proteins that move along the cytoskeleton, carrying cellular cargo, such as organelles, molecules, or other components, to specific locations within the cell

THEY MOVERSSS

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33
Q

microtubules

A

“highways of the cell”

  • thickest of the 3
  • long, tube-like structures made of protein that serve as tracks or roads for motor proteins to move along (organelle movements)
  • maintain cell shape, help with cell motility (like in cilia and flagella)
  • aid in chromosome movements in cell division

found in all eukaryotic cells

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34
Q

cilia and flagella

A

microtubule containing extensions that project from some cells

cilia: present in lung + throat cells to push up mucus

flagella: present in sperm cells

protozoans move around using cilia and flagella

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35
Q

dynein

A

motor protein which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagella

  • known for moving cellular structures and cargo along microtubules

HAS THEM 2 FEET AND IT WALKS

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36
Q

microfilaments

A
  • thinnest of the 3, thin solid rods built from molecules of actin (also a globular protein)
  • helps support shape, cell motility, cell shape, and cell division, muscle contractions and changes in cell shape

found in all eukaryotic cells

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37
Q

intermediate filaments

A
  • size is between microtubules and microfilaments
  • tension-bearing elements, can take mechanical stress, important for tissues that need to be strong and resilient
  • *not found in ALL eukaryotic cells,
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38
Q

myosin

A

protein that plays crucial role in muscle contraction

  • microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
39
Q

pseudopodia

A

“cellular arms” or “temporary extensions” that some cells use to move and capture prey

  • usually in single-celled organisms like amoeba
40
Q

cytoplasmic streaming

A

“cellular traffic flow”

  • movement of cell’s cytoplasm and the materials within it in a coordinated manner to distribute essential substances within the cell
  • driven by actin protein interactions
41
Q

3 layers of plant cell walls

A

primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible, secreted first

middle lamella: thin layer b/w primary walls, containing polysaccharides called pectins

secondary cell wall: (in some cells), added b/w plasma membrane and primary cell wall

42
Q

ECM of animal cells

A
  • animal cells lack cell walls but are covered in extracellular matrix
  • made of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
43
Q

integrins

A

“cellular velcro”

  • proteins on the surface of cells that help stick to and interact with environment
44
Q

tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes (anchoring junctions)

A

tight junctions: “cellular zippers,” connect neighboring tissues tightly to make sure there are no leaks
- ex. present in digestive tract

gap junctions: “communication tunnels,” allow quick communication through openings that allow molecules and ions to pass directly
- ex. present in heart cells

desmosomes: fasten cells together into strong sheets, important in tissues subjected to mechanical stress, like skin and heart muscles

45
Q

meaning of amphipathic molecule and its relation to membrane structure

A

amphipathic: containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

  • cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins, specifically phospholipids which keep the structure intact
46
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

used to refer to the membrane structure as it is a mosaic of proteins molecules bobbing in the fluid bilayer of phospholipids

  • proteins are not randomly distributed, they are in groups that carry out common functions
  • not rigid in the way you would think a cell wall is, can move laterally, packed less and more tightly in some cases
47
Q

factors that affect membrane fluidity (3 factors + give reasons for why)

A
  • membranes with more unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid (because of the kinks, they cannot pack together as closely)
  • as temperature cools, becomes less fluid and more solid
  • cholesterol molecules embedded in membrane - reduce fluidity but prevent total tight packing (helps because when you reduce temperature, membrane won’t solidify as quickly)

membranes must be fluid to work properly

48
Q

membranes are held together by ___________________ bonds

A

weak hydrophobic

49
Q

phospholipids form main fabric of membrane, but ________ determine most of membrane’s functions

A

proteins

  • protein composition of membranes varies among cells within an organism, and among intracellular membranes within a cell
50
Q

2 types of membrane proteins

A

integral proteins: penetrate hydrophobic interior of phospholipid bilayer, some extend partway some completely
- majority are transmembrane proteins: span the entire membrane

peripheral proteins: not embedded in the bilayer at all, but loosely bounded to the top, often exposed partially

51
Q

what are the 6 major functions of membrane proteins?

A
  1. transport: transmembrane proteins can help facilitate movement of molecules
  2. enzymatic activity: membrane proteins can serve as enzymes where they would attach to the active site
  3. signal transduction: membrane protein might have the specific shape needed to bind and relay the message to inside the cell
  4. cell-cell recognition: some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of that cell
  5. intercellular joining: can hook together to form many types of junctions, like gap or tight junctions
  6. attach to cytoskeleton or ECM: microfilaments can be noncovalently bonded to membrane proteins to help maintain cell shape and stabilize location of certain cells
52
Q

how does the polarity of a molecule affect its crossing of the cell membrane?

A
  • nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic and have easy time passing through
  • polar molecules are hydrophilic and have difficulty passing (get stuck) or pass really slowly (including water)

proteins that are built into the membrane can help certain things pass

53
Q

transport proteins + the 2 types

A

help move various substances such as ions and molecules across the membrane

channel proteins: have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel
- ex. aquaporins: little channels that allow water to enter

carrier proteins: bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across membrane

  • transport proteins are specific to the substance they move (so glucose carrier proteins only move glucose)
54
Q

passive transport vs. active transport

A

passive transport: diffusion of substance across membrane with no energy required, goes down concentration gradient (high to low)

active transport: requires energy to move substances, movement against concentration gradient (low to high)

  • if 2 substances in a solute, moves down its OWN concentration gradient, not the overall concentration gradient
55
Q

2 things that the selective permeability of a membrane is dependent on

A
  • natural permeability of a lipid bilayer (i.e. polar and nonpolar)
  • specific transport proteins built into the membrane
56
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion but basically only for water

  • high to low water concentration
  • low to high solute concentration
57
Q

tonicity

A

ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to gain or lose water

  • hypo, hyper, and iso (but you already know this)
58
Q

what is plasmolysis

A

when plants are placed in a hypertonic environment, they lose water and cell shrivels

  • membrane pulls away from cell wall = plant wilts and dies

preferrable condition: turgid

59
Q

what is osmoregulation

A

control of solute concentration and water balance

  • important for organisms that live in very hypo or hypertonic environments
60
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

speeds transport of solute by providing efficient passageway to go through

still passive bc doesn’t go against the concentration gradient

  • ex. channel proteins
61
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A
  • example of active transport
  • exchanges sodium for potassium against the electrochemical gradient
  • pumps sodium ions out and potassium ions in
62
Q

membrane potential

A
  • all cells have voltages (electric potential energy, separation of opposite charges)
  • inside cell is more negative compared to the outside of the cell
  • pumps regulate this by pumping ions using energy

affects the movement of ions

63
Q

electrogenic pump

A

active transport proteins that generate voltage across membrane while pumping ions

  • in animals: Na/K pump
  • in plants, fungi, bacteria: proton pump (actively transports hydrogen ions (H+) out of cell
64
Q

bulk transport + 2 types + 3 types of endocytosis

A
  • large molecules, like polysaccharides and proteins, need to cross inside vesicles CAUSE THEY FAT

exocytosis: vesicles transport materials outside of the cell
- ex. nerve cells releasing neurotransmitters

endocytosis: vesicles transport into the cell
- two types: phagocytosis and pinocytosis

phagocytosis: devouring action, engulfs invader and then destroys

pinocytosis: drinking action, cell membrane folds and creates little pocket to bring things in (for fluids and other small substances)

receptor-mediated endocytosis: vesicle formation is triggered by solute binding to receptors, allows cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances

65
Q

first and second law of thermodynamics

A

first law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy, energy of the universe is constant, energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed

second law of thermodynamics: during every energy transfer, some energy is converted to thermal energy and lost as heat
- every energy transfer or transformation increases entropy (molecular disorder, randomness) of the universe

66
Q

catabolic vs. anabolic pathways

A

catabolic pathways: release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones
- ex. cellular respiration (break down of glucose in the presence of oxygen)

anabolic pathways: consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
- ex. synthesis of proteins from amino acids

67
Q

what is bioenergetics

A

study of how energy flows through living organisms

68
Q

what is metabolism

A

totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of anabolic and catabolic pathways

69
Q

energy definition

A

capacity to cause change

70
Q

what does metabolic pathway mean

A

series of chemical steps that occur inside cell to transform one molecule into another

  • each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme, a macromolecule that speeds up a specific reaction
71
Q

kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, and chemical energy

A

kinetic energy: energy associated with motion
- ex. water gushing through a dam turns turbines

potential energy: energy stored ready for action, has to do with position or structure
- ex. book on shelf can fall and do work or stretched rubber band
- molecules possess energy due to the arrangement of electrons in bonds between their atoms

thermal energy: associated with heat, the more heat something has = more thermal energy

chemical energy: energy stored in bonds b/w molecules
- ex. potential energy stored in food

72
Q

what is thermodynamics

A

study of energy transformations in a collection of matter

73
Q

isolated vs. open system

A

isolated: doesn’t exchange energy or matter with surroundings, “closed box” - ex. liquid in a thermos bottle

open: able to exchange both energy and matter with surroundings
- organisms are open systems, exchange light or food and release heat

74
Q

how to tell if a reaction occurs spontaneously or not?

A
  • by the free energy change

spontaneous: reaction will proceed without an input of energy

*negative ∆G = reaction will be spontaneous

positive ∆G = reaction is NOT spontaneous*

75
Q

enthalpy

A

∆H

  • measure of the total heat content of a system
  • positive = heat is absorbed
  • negative = heat is released
76
Q

entropy

A

∆S

  • measure of disorder in a system (represents dispersion of energy)
  • disordered state = high entropy state
77
Q

Gibbs free energy + equation

A

describes the amount of work that can be done in a system given the thermodynamic environment

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

*temperature in Kelvin

when G is positive = endergonic reaction

when G is negative = exergonic reaction

78
Q

exergonic vs endergonic reactions

A
  • exergonic: energy out, more energy released than absorbed (∆G is negative)
  • endergonic: energy in, more energy absorbed than released (∆G is positive)
79
Q

what is equilibrium

A

point at which forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate

  • state of maximum stability
80
Q

what is energy coupling

A

energy released by one reaction is used to drive another reaction

  • mostly mediated by ATP in cells
81
Q

structure and hydrolysis of ATP

A

composed of: ribose (a sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups

  • ATP stores a lot of energy in it and is broken down by hydrolysis
  • the water and ATP molecule combine releasing a lot of energy, turning ATP into ADP
  • cell “unzipping” ATP when it needs the energy
82
Q

phosphorylation and phosphorylated intermediate

A

phosphorylation: transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule, this transfer is used to modify or activate the target molecule
- common way for cells to control and regulate various processes, such as signaling and enzymatic reactions

phosphorylated intermediate: the molecule with the phosphate tag

83
Q

ATP cycle

A
  • ATP can regenerate (turns into ADP but can be turned back into ATP)
  • energy from catabolism (exergonic, energy-releasing processes) is used to synthesize ATP
  • energy released by ATP hydrolysis is used for cellular work (endergonic, energy-consuming processes)
84
Q

enzyme, catalyst, & substrate

A

enzyme: macromolecule (protein) that acts as a catalyst to speed up a specific reaction (limited to biological reactions and are specific to the one reaction that they carry out)

catalyst: chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction (are not usually specific to a certain reaction, also not limited to biological reactions)

substrate: reactant that an enzyme acts on

85
Q

activation energy

A

free energy of activation

“energy hurdle” that a chemical reaction must overcome to get started

  • initial energy needed to break the bonds of reactants
  • acts like a barrier that determines the rate of spontaneous reactions
86
Q

catalysis

A

process by which a catalyst selectively speeds up a reaction without being consumed itself by lowering the activation energy

87
Q

enzyme-substrate complex & active site

A

“lock and key”

when enzyme binds to its substrate, allowing enzyme to carry out its work

active site: region on enzyme that binds to substrate

88
Q

induced fit (in regards to enzyme-substrate)

A

enzyme changes shape slightly to fit the substrate

  • kinda like how you change grip on hand to shake someone else’s hand
89
Q

rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is increased by increasing ____________

A

substrate concentration

  • at some point substrate concentration is high enough that all enzyme molecules have their active sites engaged = substrate concentration is saturated
90
Q

noncompetitive (allosteric) vs. competitive inhibitors

A

competitive inhibitors: “molecular rivals” that are competing with the substrate to bind to the active site
- increasing substrate concentration can overcome inhibition
- blocks substrate = reduces enzyme productivity

noncompetitive inhibitors: “molecular blockers” that bind to a different site on the enzyme, changing its shape to make it less effective at catalyzing reaction
- ex. toxins, antibiotics, pesticides

91
Q

allosteric regulation (activator and inhibitor)

A
  • “remote control” - controls from a distance, molecule binds elsewhere and changes function and shape of protein

allosteric activator: “protein cheerleader,” encourages the protein’s activity

allosteric inhibitor: when binds, slows down or blocks protein activity

92
Q

cooperatively in enzyme-substrate complexes

A

one substrate molecule binds to an enzyme, and this binding makes it easier for additional substrate molecules to bind to other active sites on the same enzyme

93
Q

feedback inhibition

A

“brake system” for controlling a process

  • when product accumulates to a specific level, “feeds back” to inhibit or slow down earlier step in the process
94
Q

fermentation

A

partial degradation of sugars that occurs without oxygen

  • used when cells need energy but theres not enough oxygen available

BIO 110 (11 decks)

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