exam 2 define Flashcards
Traits and their hierarchical organization
Each trait in the B5 is a superfactor and has 6 facets
Each facet has 4? specific habits
Superfactor → facet → specific habit
Extraversion → sociability → smiles at strangers
Facets of openness
Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values
FAFAIV
Facets of conscientiousness
Self-discipline, competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, deliberation
SCODAD
Facets of extraversion
Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness, excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth
GAAEPW
Facets of agreeableness
Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty, tendermindedness, compliance
STAMTC
Facets of neuroticism
Anxiety, self-consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, hostility
ASDVIH
Lexical approach
Assumes that important personality concepts are in language, so personality reflects the superfactors of adjectives in language
Uses factor analysis
Used by Allport & Odbert
Factor analysis
Creates clusters/groups of similar/correlated traits
Reduces complexity + redundancy among traits to decrease the number of dimensions and create broader factors that summarize individual traits
Simplifies and makes concepts more parsimonious
Allport & Odbert
Used the lexical approach and found 18,000 person-descriptive English words in the dictionary and divided them into categories traits (5000), states, activities, and other (evaluations, skills, etc)
Father and critic of the B5
Cattell & the 16PF
Sorted 5000 traits using factor analysis and found 16 personality factors, but they were not replicable
Discredited scientifically, but still a pioneer in personality research
Allport’s 3 different kinds of traits
Cardinal, central, & unique traits
Cardinal trait
Fundamental, overarching trait that is so pervasive that virtually every behavior of an individual can be traced to its influence
Most important trait of a person’s personality (highest/lowest score on B5)
Ex: an extraverted person has many friends and a career in comedy because they like being around people
Studied by Allport
Central trait
General trait that can be found in most people in varying degrees
Not as influential as cardinal traits
Ex: everyone is honest to a degree
Studied by Allport
Unique trait
Trait that only 1 person uniquely has
Hard to find a truly unique trait for a single person
Ex: drink 3 glasses of water every morning when they wake up
Studied by Allport
Idiographic approach
Favored by Allport & existentialists because he thought 5 factors were not enough to capture the uniqueness of each individual and shit on factor analysis (garbo in, garbo out)
Nomothetic approach
Favored by Cattell, Norman, Goldberg, & Eysenck as they all used factor analysis to capture common traits that could apply to everyone
Eysenck’s 3-Factor Theory
Giant 3 superfactors
PEN = psychoticism (A- & C-), extraversion, neuroticism
Big butthurt because he thought the B5 stole E & N from him when he stole E from Jung
Argued that O is just IQ
A & C predict different things (likability & school performance, respectively)
OCEAN
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
School performance is predicted by
O+ : enjoying learning leads to practicing more
C+ : staying focused, taking better notes, planning
Delinquency is predicted by
A- : don’t get along with peers, manipulative
C- : unmotivated, lazy, careless
Likeability is predicted by
A+ : cooperative, prosocial, kind, helpful, considerate
Longevity is predicted by
C+ : regularity of healthy habits (ex. Meds, exercise)
Number of sex partners is predicted by
E+ : meet more people by going to more places/events
Punctuality is predicted by
C+ : better at keeping up with schedule
Why are the B5 called “big”?
Are super broad and include about 1000 individual traits per factor
Are the highest level of abstraction/generality in the hierarchical model of personality
NEO-PI-R
Developed by Costa & McCrae
Measures the B5 using 6 facets for each superfactor
Temporal stability of B5 from age 20 to 40
.50
Temporal stability of B5 from age 40 to 60
.70
Temporal stability of B5 from age 20 to 60
.45
Mean level changes in B5 during adulthood
Nicholas Cage effect: ↑ A & C, ↓ N for women
Why are there mean level changes in B5?
Intrinsic maturation: biological change (McCrae & Costa)
Environment & experiences change our traits (ex. New roles/responsibilities like job, spouse, parenthood) ↑ A & C
Self-acceptance, confidence, & mastery experience ↓ N for women
Mean level changes in B5 during adolescence
Age of rebellion: ↓ A & C, ↑ N for girls
Valley of tears
Mean level changes in B5 during adolescence
Age of rebellion: ↓ A & C, ↑ N for girls
Valley of tears
Gender differences in the B5
Girls more A+ & N+ than boys in adolescence
Giant 3 – Big 5 – Middling 16 – Tiny Tots Thousands
Eysenck – Norman & Goldberg – Cattell – Allport
Implications of B5 research
Traits are malleable
All B5 dimensions are important in everyday life
Traits can be a risk or buffer against stress
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and types
Measures personality using a combo of 4 types
Extraversion – introversion
Sensing – intuition
Thinking – feeling
Perceiving – judging
Critiques of MBTI
Not empirical (poor test re-test reliability)
No predictive power
No negative affect for any type
Categorical (arbitrary cut-offs) instead of dimensional
Nature-nurture debate
All B5 traits are partially heritable with a genetic contribution of 45% each
Twin studies
Used to find the heritability estimate of personality (45%)
Adoption studies
Allow us to compare the similarities between the child vs. their bio parents, the child vs. their adoptive parents, and the child vs. their sibling (offspring of adoptive parents)
Shared environment effects
Smaller (5%)
Unique environment effects
Larger (35%)
Separated twins are more like each other than twins raised together
Ex: different parenting styles, schools, friends, home environment (different SES during childhood)
Judith Harris
Argued that a person’s genes & their interactions with peers (non-shared environment) are more important than their parents
Parents do influence peer interactions but parental effects on personality is not as direct as believed previously
Frank Sulloway
Believed that birth order (unique environment) is important in personality development
First-borns
C+ : act like a surrogate parent → achievement-oriented, responsible, organized
E+ : stronger, dominant, exert leadership
N+ : more blamed for problems → jealous, anxious, fearful, stressed
Later-borns
O+ : freer to experiment & less conforming, tradition, close ID with parents
A+ : need to survive → get along with older siblings, cooperative, popular (evidence not as strong)
Eysenck’s optimal arousal theory
Extraverts are less sensitive to stimuli so they seek out more intense stimuli to reach same arousal level
Did not replicate (lemon juice)
Positive Emotionality theory
Extraverts have a biological basis for positive emotions which is modified by experience, leading them ot be more sociable
Behavioral Approach System (BAS)
Extraverts have a highly reactive BAS which acts as a “go” system, leading to approach motivation
Correlates with both extraversion & positive emotionality
Approach motivation
Engage in rewarding + stimulating behaviors even if they can be risky
Parental investment theory
Predicts that because women have a greater in time investment in offspring than men, they have different preferences when looking for a partner
Men prefer women who are more youthful, physically attractive, and have less sex (for paternity reasons)
Women prefer men who can provide more resources
Gender differences in jealousy
Men are more jealous about sexual infidelity (for paternity reasons)
Women get more jealous about emotional attachment becuase of the threat of losing rescources
3 components of status
Prominence, respect, influence
Prominence
More visible, well-known, receive more scrutiny
Respect
Higher esteem/regard
Influence
More control over group decisions + processes
3 groups Anderson et al. studied
Frats, sororities, co-ed dorms
Why did Anderson et al. study 3 different groups?
They were intact groups, so they could study the naturalistic, long-term effects of personality on status
These groups also spend a lot of time together and have a wide range of interactions
Also able to study gender differences
Data sources for Anderson et al. study
Peer ratings of prominence & life-outcome data (number of positions + offices held)
Strong correlation (r = .56, p < .0) demonstrates convergent validity
Controlled for length of membership (improve discriminant validity)
Emotion Facial Action Coding System (EMFACS) for Study 3 to test neuroticism in Study 3 instead of self-report
Code facial expression after eliciting moderate levels of negative emotions (fear, embarrassment, shame, sadness, anger, contempt, disgust)
B5 that predicted social status
E had a strong correlation even after controlling physical attractiveness (a little stronger for men vs. women and for same-sex vs. mixed-sex)
A had no correlation
N had a strong correlation for men and no correlation for women even after controlling for physical attractiveness (sex differences do not reflect self-report biases)
Physical attractiveness had a strong correlation for men but no correlation for women
Were the hypotheses of Anderson et al. supported?
The researchers’ hypotheses were supported as the data reaffirmed past research
3 basic assumptions of Behaviorism
(1) Nearly all behavior is learned
(2) There is a need for empirical research
(3) behavior is a function of the situation B = f(S)
John Watson
Argued that anything can be learned and environmment plays the largest role in personality development
Can turn your baby into a beggar
Humans are a blank slate (tabula rasa)
Pavlov
Studied classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Learning by association
Ex: Chloe the cat thinks it’s time to each when Prof John grinds his coffee because he makes coffee and feeds Chloe in the morning
Unconditioned stimuli (US)
Triggers naturally occurring response (before conditioning)
Ex: Chloe’s cat food
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Previously neutral but now triggers response (after conditioning)
Ex: coffee grinder
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Naturally occuring response (before conditioning)
Ex: salivation
Generalization
Association to similar stimuli
Ex: Chloe comes for food when she hears the can opener
Discrimination
Differences in association among different stimuli
Ex: Chloe learns that the coffee grinder indicates food but the can opener doesn’t
Extinction
Slow unlearning of association
Ex: Chloe learns that she doesn’t get food at night even when the coffee grinder is on
Systematic desensitization
Extinction of learned phobias/fears in a step-by-step process
Conditioned emotional response (CER)
Any negative emotional response, typically fear or anxiety, that becomes associated with a neutral stimulus as a result of classical conditioning
Skinner
Studied operant conditioning
Operant conditioning
Learning based on reinforcement
Relies on token economy
Works well in kindergartens + prisons but not adult populations
Studied by Skinner
Reinforcement
Reward desired behavior & punish undesired behavior
Reward vs. punishment
Reward works better than punishment as the source of punishment is feared/resented
Sign approach
Test behavior is a _______ of underlying trait/complex and are used to make strong inferences + interpretations
Used by trait theorists (Allport) & psychoanalysts (Freud)
Sample approach
Test behavior is a sample of potential interesting behavior and is not used for major inferences
Used byt behaviorists (Skinner)
3 types of conflict in Behaviorism
Approach-avoidance, approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance
Approach-avoidance
Conflict between wanting to approach the potential positive benefits and wanting to avoid the potential negative consequences
Ex: want to make friends but afraid of rejection
Approach-approach
Conflict that arises when there are too many desirable choices, and it is difficult to choose
Ex: choose 1 cereal in a huge cereal aisle
Avoidance-avoidance
Conflict that arises when there are two undesirable alternatives that one must choose between
Ex: have to do homework or clear apartment
Biological preparedness
Genetic predisposition to learn some associations more easily because they are evolutionarily advantageous & can increase chances of survival and reproduction
Examples of biological preparedness
Harder to learn a second language after age 12
One-trial learning (like food aversions)
Hard to learn/unlearn some associations
Garcia effect
Animals can learn in 1 trial
Rats associated diet pepsi with nausea & lights with electric shocks, but did not cross over learning when pepsi led to shocks and lights led to nausea
Was Watson right?
Nah, he totally neglected how biology influences behavior/learning
Cognitive revolution
Shift from behaviorism to cognition due to tech advancement in the early 70’s
Metaphor for behaviorism & social cognition
Used to need to go through an S-R connections/operator to talk on the phone (behaviorism goes through behavior to testing learning)
Now use computers (social cognition studies how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain)
Cognitive approach
Like computers, humans encode, store, and retrieve information
Studies how this works in humans
Reappraisal
Antecedent-focused regulation strategy that changes the meaning of an event to change the experience of the emotion
Decreases negative emotions and increases positive emotions
Suppression
Response-focused strategy that inhibits behavioral expression of an emotional response (ex. Facial, verbal, gestural)
Decreases positive and negative emotions
Cultural differences in use of emotion regulation strategies
Suppression is more encouraged in EA cultures due to importance of adjusting individual behavior to maintain interpersonal harmony
Suppression is less encouraged in W cultures due to importance of autonomy and expressing one’s true self BFFR
Cultural differences in effects of suppression
Suppression is associated with lower subjective authenticity and positive emotion expression, but not relationship satisfaction in the Chinese sample
Direct mediator for suppression & reappraisal
Suppression → less positive emotion expression → indicates indifference, withdrawal → bad for wellbeing & relationships
Reappraisal → more positive emotion expression → indicates approachability, affiliation → good for wellbeing & relationships
Indirect mediator for suppression & reappraisal
Suppression → subjective inauthenticity → indicates misunderstanding, distance → bad for wellbeing & relationships
Reappraisal → subjective authenticity → indicates trust, honesty, openness → good for wellbeing & relationships
Effect of suppression on well-being and relationship satisfaction
Suppression was a stronger predictor for less positive emotion expression than subjective inauthenticity
Subjective authenticity was a better predictor of relationship satisfaction than positive emotion expression
Suppression and relationship satisfaction is not correlated when controlled for subjective authenticity
Kelly
Developed personal construct theory which is a cognitive theory
Constructive alternativism
efforts to construe and interpret events to make sense of them & there are many constructions available to choose between
Kelly’s view of the person
People are like scientists trying to understand their environment and predict future outcomes B = f(P[S])
Does not see people as rats (a product of their environment) B = f(S)
Construct system
Used to describe, understand, predict, and control events
Role construct repertory (REP) test
Used to elicit an individual’s construct system
Columns = role figures
Rows = constructs & contrast poles
Pick 3 role figures and indicate how 2 of them are similar and different from the 3rd
Kelly
Bipolar/contrast pole
Opposite of a construct
Many constructs have this
Submerged contrast pole
Contrast pole that cannot be verbalized
Not many constructs have this
Preverbal construct
Constructs develop before children are able to speak
Seen in sign language
Personal construct theory
Thinking about how to organize and construe information
Core construct
Stable, cross-situational
Basic to a person’s construct system and cannot be altered without serious consequences for the whole system
Peripheral construct
Construct that is not basic to the construct system and can be altered without serious consequences for the whole system
Superordinate
Broad categories that cover the whole domain but are not specific enough
Basic
Broad enough for utility
Compromise between superordinate and subordinate
Subordinate
Help you predict but too specific to be generalizable
Superordinate – basic – subordinate examples
Fruit – apple – granny smith
Mammal – cat – siamese
Good – kind – charitable
B5 dimension – facet – specific habit/behavior
Extraverted – sociable – talkative
Pull theory (carrot theory)
People are motivated by external reinforcers, rewards, and punishments
What they are drawn to
Behaviorists (Skinner) believe this
Push theory
Internal drives/motives, instinctual forces push/propel the person forward
They are driven to do X
Psychodynamic theorists, psychoanalysts (Freud), & humanists (Rogers incongruence of actual-ideal self)) believe this
Jackass theory
People are motivated by cognition and are always cognitively active and processing information even if it looks like they are doing nothing
Cognitive theorists (Kelly) believe this
Tolman’s tourist rats
Proof for Jackass theory
Train system transported rats through a maze, and rats make cognitive maps of maze with latent learning
Rats only demonstrated learning when there was an incentive
Latent learning
Learning without reinforcement
Range of convenience
All events in which the construct system is useful
Anxiety
Recognition that an event lies outside the range of convenience in a construct system
Threat
Awareness of imminent comprehensive change in core constructs (massive reorganization of constructs)
Psychopathology in personal construct/cognitive theory
Malfunctioning and thought disorders of the construct system where people do not create proper constructs
Fixed role therapy
Challenges clients by encouraging them to represent themselves in new ways, through new roles
Involves homework in that the client must act like their new role for a period of time
Client collects data, tries new constructs + ways of thinking/behaving, and tests hypotheses (reality testing)
3 conditions of change
(1) Experimentation of constructs/thinking/behaving
(2) New elements: objects, experiences, people
(3) collect validational data (reality testing)
Beck & Ellis
Argued that irrational beliefs make us unhappy/sad
Developed CBT & rational-emotive therapy (RET)
Dweck
Studied incremental & entity beliefs
Borrowed stable-variable attributions from Weiner
Incremental beliefs
Growth mindset
Belief you can change your attributes
Entity beliefs
Fixed mindset
Belief you can’t change your attributes
6 basic assumptions of social cognitive theory:
(1) People as active agents (doers)
=People choose their friends who influence their behavior
(2) Cognitive processes exist (thinking)
=Your perception of a situation influences behavior
(3) Social origins of behavior
=Society/societal expectations influence behavior
(4) Behavior as situation-specific
=Only nice in front of authority figures
(5) Learning complex behavior without reward
=Latent learning (language), one-time learning (food aversion, fear of snakes)
(6) Emphasize empirical research
=We love the scientific method
(1) Rogers (Kelly; active contruers)
(2) Kelly
(3) Behaviorists (& post-Freudians)
(4) Behaviorists (anti-trait theorists)
(5) Post-behaviorists: Tolman (Rogers: personal growth)
(6) Behaviorists, Rogers, trait theorists
Mischel
Studied delay of gratification (Marshmallow test), aggression in summer youth camps (behavioral signature), & cognitive-affective processing systems (CAPS)
Behavioral signature
Individually distinctive profiles (stable patterns) of situation-behavior relationships
If… then
Not about average behavior tendencies
Cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS)
Personality functions as a system of highly interconnected cognitive and emotional processes
Studied by Mischel
Bandura
Studied observational learning/modeling (bobo dolls), reciprocal determinism, and self-efficacy
Bobo dolls
Studied observational learning and behavior modeling
Children watched a model act aggressively toward the Bobo doll
Children had acquired the knowledge of behavior after watching someone perform, but it does not necessarily cause them to perform the behavior
Acquisition
Learn new behaviors
Independent on reinforcement
Performance
Produce learned behavior
Dependent on reinforcement
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior is a function of how perception influences the situation and vice versa B = f(P↔S)
Reactive PxS interaction
Person perceives + reacts to situation
Studied by Caspi & Bem
Proactive PxS interaction
Person actively selects their environment, and thus the situations they experience
Evocative PxS interaction
Person’s attributes elicit certain reactions from others, which reinforces behavior
Studied by Caspi & Bem
Self-efficacy
Self-perceived ability to cope with specific situations & influence and reach goals
Domain-specific
Effects of self-efficacy on an individual
More likely to attempt & persist in difficult tasks
Have less anxiety & depression when approaching situations
Cope better with stress & disappointment
Delay of gratification
Helps establish goal hierarchies & long-term goals + motivation
Studied by Mischel
Guided mastery
Watches a model perform behaviors and helps perform behaviors themselves
Schemas
Pre-existing mental structures that organize stimuli/world around us
Self-verification
motivation to obtain information that is consistent with one’s self-concept
Self-enhancement
Motive to maintain/enhance positive views of self
Possible selves
Representation of who one may become, want to become, and are afraid of becoming
Help understand why people experience difficulties in self-control/willpower
Higgins
Studied actual self – ought self
Difference between ideal self vs. ought self
Not reaching ideal self makes us feel sad/depressed because of loss of potential positive outcomes
Not reaching ought self makes us feel anxious/agitated because not achieving obligations is an impending threat
Weiner
Studied attributions (causal explanations) on 2 dimensions:
Internal – external
Stable – variable
Weiner’s attribution model
Internal & stable: traits, ability
Internal & variable: effort, (self-efficacy)
External & stable: task difficulty
External & variable: luck, chance
