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exam 2 define Flashcards

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1
Q

Traits and their hierarchical organization

A

Each trait in the B5 is a superfactor and has 6 facets
Each facet has 4? specific habits
Superfactor → facet → specific habit
Extraversion → sociability → smiles at strangers

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2
Q

Facets of openness

A

Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values
FAFAIV

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3
Q

Facets of conscientiousness

A

Self-discipline, competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, deliberation
SCODAD

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4
Q

Facets of extraversion

A

Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness, excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth
GAAEPW

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5
Q

Facets of agreeableness

A

Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty, tendermindedness, compliance
STAMTC

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6
Q

Facets of neuroticism

A

Anxiety, self-consciousness, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness, hostility
ASDVIH

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7
Q

Lexical approach

A

Assumes that important personality concepts are in language, so personality reflects the superfactors of adjectives in language
Uses factor analysis
Used by Allport & Odbert

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8
Q

Factor analysis

A

Creates clusters/groups of similar/correlated traits
Reduces complexity + redundancy among traits to decrease the number of dimensions and create broader factors that summarize individual traits
Simplifies and makes concepts more parsimonious

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9
Q

Allport & Odbert

A

Used the lexical approach and found 18,000 person-descriptive English words in the dictionary and divided them into categories traits (5000), states, activities, and other (evaluations, skills, etc)
Father and critic of the B5

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10
Q

Cattell & the 16PF

A

Sorted 5000 traits using factor analysis and found 16 personality factors, but they were not replicable
Discredited scientifically, but still a pioneer in personality research

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11
Q

Allport’s 3 different kinds of traits

A

Cardinal, central, & unique traits

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12
Q

Cardinal trait

A

Fundamental, overarching trait that is so pervasive that virtually every behavior of an individual can be traced to its influence
Most important trait of a person’s personality (highest/lowest score on B5)
Ex: an extraverted person has many friends and a career in comedy because they like being around people
Studied by Allport

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13
Q

Central trait

A

General trait that can be found in most people in varying degrees
Not as influential as cardinal traits
Ex: everyone is honest to a degree
Studied by Allport

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14
Q

Unique trait

A

Trait that only 1 person uniquely has
Hard to find a truly unique trait for a single person
Ex: drink 3 glasses of water every morning when they wake up
Studied by Allport

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15
Q

Idiographic approach

A

Favored by Allport & existentialists because he thought 5 factors were not enough to capture the uniqueness of each individual and shit on factor analysis (garbo in, garbo out)

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16
Q

Nomothetic approach

A

Favored by Cattell, Norman, Goldberg, & Eysenck as they all used factor analysis to capture common traits that could apply to everyone

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17
Q

Eysenck’s 3-Factor Theory

A

Giant 3 superfactors
PEN = psychoticism (A- & C-), extraversion, neuroticism
Big butthurt because he thought the B5 stole E & N from him when he stole E from Jung
Argued that O is just IQ
A & C predict different things (likability & school performance, respectively)

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18
Q

OCEAN

A

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

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19
Q

School performance is predicted by

A

O+ : enjoying learning leads to practicing more
C+ : staying focused, taking better notes, planning

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20
Q

Delinquency is predicted by

A

A- : don’t get along with peers, manipulative
C- : unmotivated, lazy, careless

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21
Q

Likeability is predicted by

A

A+ : cooperative, prosocial, kind, helpful, considerate

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22
Q

Longevity is predicted by

A

C+ : regularity of healthy habits (ex. Meds, exercise)

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23
Q

Number of sex partners is predicted by

A

E+ : meet more people by going to more places/events

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24
Q

Punctuality is predicted by

A

C+ : better at keeping up with schedule

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25
Q

Why are the B5 called “big”?

A

Are super broad and include about 1000 individual traits per factor
Are the highest level of abstraction/generality in the hierarchical model of personality

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26
Q

NEO-PI-R

A

Developed by Costa & McCrae
Measures the B5 using 6 facets for each superfactor

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27
Q

Temporal stability of B5 from age 20 to 40

A

.50

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28
Q

Temporal stability of B5 from age 40 to 60

A

.70

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29
Q

Temporal stability of B5 from age 20 to 60

A

.45

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30
Q

Mean level changes in B5 during adulthood

A

Nicholas Cage effect: ↑ A & C, ↓ N for women

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31
Q

Why are there mean level changes in B5?

A

Intrinsic maturation: biological change (McCrae & Costa)
Environment & experiences change our traits (ex. New roles/responsibilities like job, spouse, parenthood) ↑ A & C
Self-acceptance, confidence, & mastery experience ↓ N for women

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32
Q

Mean level changes in B5 during adolescence

A

Age of rebellion: ↓ A & C, ↑ N for girls
Valley of tears

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32
Q

Mean level changes in B5 during adolescence

A

Age of rebellion: ↓ A & C, ↑ N for girls
Valley of tears

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33
Q

Gender differences in the B5

A

Girls more A+ & N+ than boys in adolescence

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34
Q

Giant 3 – Big 5 – Middling 16 – Tiny Tots Thousands

A

Eysenck – Norman & Goldberg – Cattell – Allport

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35
Q

Implications of B5 research

A

Traits are malleable
All B5 dimensions are important in everyday life
Traits can be a risk or buffer against stress

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36
Q

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and types

A

Measures personality using a combo of 4 types
Extraversion – introversion
Sensing – intuition
Thinking – feeling
Perceiving – judging

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37
Q

Critiques of MBTI

A

Not empirical (poor test re-test reliability)
No predictive power
No negative affect for any type
Categorical (arbitrary cut-offs) instead of dimensional

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38
Q

Nature-nurture debate

A

All B5 traits are partially heritable with a genetic contribution of 45% each

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39
Q

Twin studies

A

Used to find the heritability estimate of personality (45%)

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40
Q

Adoption studies

A

Allow us to compare the similarities between the child vs. their bio parents, the child vs. their adoptive parents, and the child vs. their sibling (offspring of adoptive parents)

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41
Q

Shared environment effects

A

Smaller (5%)

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42
Q

Unique environment effects

A

Larger (35%)
Separated twins are more like each other than twins raised together
Ex: different parenting styles, schools, friends, home environment (different SES during childhood)

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43
Q

Judith Harris

A

Argued that a person’s genes & their interactions with peers (non-shared environment) are more important than their parents
Parents do influence peer interactions but parental effects on personality is not as direct as believed previously

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44
Q

Frank Sulloway

A

Believed that birth order (unique environment) is important in personality development

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45
Q

First-borns

A

C+ : act like a surrogate parent → achievement-oriented, responsible, organized
E+ : stronger, dominant, exert leadership
N+ : more blamed for problems → jealous, anxious, fearful, stressed

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46
Q

Later-borns

A

O+ : freer to experiment & less conforming, tradition, close ID with parents
A+ : need to survive → get along with older siblings, cooperative, popular (evidence not as strong)

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47
Q

Eysenck’s optimal arousal theory

A

Extraverts are less sensitive to stimuli so they seek out more intense stimuli to reach same arousal level
Did not replicate (lemon juice)

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48
Q

Positive Emotionality theory

A

Extraverts have a biological basis for positive emotions which is modified by experience, leading them ot be more sociable

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49
Q

Behavioral Approach System (BAS)

A

Extraverts have a highly reactive BAS which acts as a “go” system, leading to approach motivation
Correlates with both extraversion & positive emotionality

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50
Q

Approach motivation

A

Engage in rewarding + stimulating behaviors even if they can be risky

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51
Q

Parental investment theory

A

Predicts that because women have a greater in time investment in offspring than men, they have different preferences when looking for a partner
Men prefer women who are more youthful, physically attractive, and have less sex (for paternity reasons)
Women prefer men who can provide more resources

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52
Q

Gender differences in jealousy

A

Men are more jealous about sexual infidelity (for paternity reasons)
Women get more jealous about emotional attachment becuase of the threat of losing rescources

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53
Q

3 components of status

A

Prominence, respect, influence

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54
Q

Prominence

A

More visible, well-known, receive more scrutiny

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55
Q

Respect

A

Higher esteem/regard

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56
Q

Influence

A

More control over group decisions + processes

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57
Q

3 groups Anderson et al. studied

A

Frats, sororities, co-ed dorms

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58
Q

Why did Anderson et al. study 3 different groups?

A

They were intact groups, so they could study the naturalistic, long-term effects of personality on status
These groups also spend a lot of time together and have a wide range of interactions
Also able to study gender differences

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59
Q

Data sources for Anderson et al. study

A

Peer ratings of prominence & life-outcome data (number of positions + offices held)
Strong correlation (r = .56, p < .0) demonstrates convergent validity
Controlled for length of membership (improve discriminant validity)
Emotion Facial Action Coding System (EMFACS) for Study 3 to test neuroticism in Study 3 instead of self-report
Code facial expression after eliciting moderate levels of negative emotions (fear, embarrassment, shame, sadness, anger, contempt, disgust)

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60
Q

B5 that predicted social status

A

E had a strong correlation even after controlling physical attractiveness (a little stronger for men vs. women and for same-sex vs. mixed-sex)
A had no correlation
N had a strong correlation for men and no correlation for women even after controlling for physical attractiveness (sex differences do not reflect self-report biases)
Physical attractiveness had a strong correlation for men but no correlation for women

61
Q

Were the hypotheses of Anderson et al. supported?

A

The researchers’ hypotheses were supported as the data reaffirmed past research

62
Q

3 basic assumptions of Behaviorism

A

(1) Nearly all behavior is learned
(2) There is a need for empirical research
(3) behavior is a function of the situation B = f(S)

63
Q

John Watson

A

Argued that anything can be learned and environmment plays the largest role in personality development
Can turn your baby into a beggar
Humans are a blank slate (tabula rasa)

64
Q

Pavlov

A

Studied classical conditioning

65
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Learning by association
Ex: Chloe the cat thinks it’s time to each when Prof John grinds his coffee because he makes coffee and feeds Chloe in the morning

66
Q

Unconditioned stimuli (US)

A

Triggers naturally occurring response (before conditioning)
Ex: Chloe’s cat food

67
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

Previously neutral but now triggers response (after conditioning)
Ex: coffee grinder

68
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

Naturally occuring response (before conditioning)
Ex: salivation

69
Q

Generalization

A

Association to similar stimuli
Ex: Chloe comes for food when she hears the can opener

70
Q

Discrimination

A

Differences in association among different stimuli
Ex: Chloe learns that the coffee grinder indicates food but the can opener doesn’t

71
Q

Extinction

A

Slow unlearning of association
Ex: Chloe learns that she doesn’t get food at night even when the coffee grinder is on

72
Q

Systematic desensitization

A

Extinction of learned phobias/fears in a step-by-step process

73
Q

Conditioned emotional response (CER)

A

Any negative emotional response, typically fear or anxiety, that becomes associated with a neutral stimulus as a result of classical conditioning

74
Q

Skinner

A

Studied operant conditioning

75
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Learning based on reinforcement
Relies on token economy
Works well in kindergartens + prisons but not adult populations
Studied by Skinner

76
Q

Reinforcement

A

Reward desired behavior & punish undesired behavior

77
Q

Reward vs. punishment

A

Reward works better than punishment as the source of punishment is feared/resented

78
Q

Sign approach

A

Test behavior is a _______ of underlying trait/complex and are used to make strong inferences + interpretations
Used by trait theorists (Allport) & psychoanalysts (Freud)

79
Q

Sample approach

A

Test behavior is a sample of potential interesting behavior and is not used for major inferences
Used byt behaviorists (Skinner)

80
Q

3 types of conflict in Behaviorism

A

Approach-avoidance, approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance

81
Q

Approach-avoidance

A

Conflict between wanting to approach the potential positive benefits and wanting to avoid the potential negative consequences
Ex: want to make friends but afraid of rejection

82
Q

Approach-approach

A

Conflict that arises when there are too many desirable choices, and it is difficult to choose
Ex: choose 1 cereal in a huge cereal aisle

83
Q

Avoidance-avoidance

A

Conflict that arises when there are two undesirable alternatives that one must choose between
Ex: have to do homework or clear apartment

84
Q

Biological preparedness

A

Genetic predisposition to learn some associations more easily because they are evolutionarily advantageous & can increase chances of survival and reproduction

85
Q

Examples of biological preparedness

A

Harder to learn a second language after age 12
One-trial learning (like food aversions)
Hard to learn/unlearn some associations

86
Q

Garcia effect

A

Animals can learn in 1 trial
Rats associated diet pepsi with nausea & lights with electric shocks, but did not cross over learning when pepsi led to shocks and lights led to nausea

87
Q

Was Watson right?

A

Nah, he totally neglected how biology influences behavior/learning

88
Q

Cognitive revolution

A

Shift from behaviorism to cognition due to tech advancement in the early 70’s

89
Q

Metaphor for behaviorism & social cognition

A

Used to need to go through an S-R connections/operator to talk on the phone (behaviorism goes through behavior to testing learning)
Now use computers (social cognition studies how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain)

90
Q

Cognitive approach

A

Like computers, humans encode, store, and retrieve information
Studies how this works in humans

91
Q

Reappraisal

A

Antecedent-focused regulation strategy that changes the meaning of an event to change the experience of the emotion
Decreases negative emotions and increases positive emotions

92
Q

Suppression

A

Response-focused strategy that inhibits behavioral expression of an emotional response (ex. Facial, verbal, gestural)
Decreases positive and negative emotions

93
Q

Cultural differences in use of emotion regulation strategies

A

Suppression is more encouraged in EA cultures due to importance of adjusting individual behavior to maintain interpersonal harmony
Suppression is less encouraged in W cultures due to importance of autonomy and expressing one’s true self BFFR

94
Q

Cultural differences in effects of suppression

A

Suppression is associated with lower subjective authenticity and positive emotion expression, but not relationship satisfaction in the Chinese sample

95
Q

Direct mediator for suppression & reappraisal

A

Suppression → less positive emotion expression → indicates indifference, withdrawal → bad for wellbeing & relationships
Reappraisal → more positive emotion expression → indicates approachability, affiliation → good for wellbeing & relationships

96
Q

Indirect mediator for suppression & reappraisal

A

Suppression → subjective inauthenticity → indicates misunderstanding, distance → bad for wellbeing & relationships
Reappraisal → subjective authenticity → indicates trust, honesty, openness → good for wellbeing & relationships

97
Q

Effect of suppression on well-being and relationship satisfaction

A

Suppression was a stronger predictor for less positive emotion expression than subjective inauthenticity
Subjective authenticity was a better predictor of relationship satisfaction than positive emotion expression
Suppression and relationship satisfaction is not correlated when controlled for subjective authenticity

98
Q

Kelly

A

Developed personal construct theory which is a cognitive theory

99
Q

Constructive alternativism

A

efforts to construe and interpret events to make sense of them & there are many constructions available to choose between

100
Q

Kelly’s view of the person

A

People are like scientists trying to understand their environment and predict future outcomes B = f(P[S])
Does not see people as rats (a product of their environment) B = f(S)

101
Q

Construct system

A

Used to describe, understand, predict, and control events

102
Q

Role construct repertory (REP) test

A

Used to elicit an individual’s construct system
Columns = role figures
Rows = constructs & contrast poles
Pick 3 role figures and indicate how 2 of them are similar and different from the 3rd
Kelly

103
Q

Bipolar/contrast pole

A

Opposite of a construct
Many constructs have this

104
Q

Submerged contrast pole

A

Contrast pole that cannot be verbalized
Not many constructs have this

105
Q

Preverbal construct

A

Constructs develop before children are able to speak
Seen in sign language

106
Q

Personal construct theory

A

Thinking about how to organize and construe information

107
Q

Core construct

A

Stable, cross-situational
Basic to a person’s construct system and cannot be altered without serious consequences for the whole system

108
Q

Peripheral construct

A

Construct that is not basic to the construct system and can be altered without serious consequences for the whole system

109
Q

Superordinate

A

Broad categories that cover the whole domain but are not specific enough

110
Q

Basic

A

Broad enough for utility
Compromise between superordinate and subordinate

111
Q

Subordinate

A

Help you predict but too specific to be generalizable

112
Q

Superordinate – basic – subordinate examples

A

Fruit – apple – granny smith
Mammal – cat – siamese
Good – kind – charitable
B5 dimension – facet – specific habit/behavior
Extraverted – sociable – talkative

113
Q

Pull theory (carrot theory)

A

People are motivated by external reinforcers, rewards, and punishments
What they are drawn to
Behaviorists (Skinner) believe this

114
Q

Push theory

A

Internal drives/motives, instinctual forces push/propel the person forward
They are driven to do X
Psychodynamic theorists, psychoanalysts (Freud), & humanists (Rogers incongruence of actual-ideal self)) believe this

115
Q

Jackass theory

A

People are motivated by cognition and are always cognitively active and processing information even if it looks like they are doing nothing
Cognitive theorists (Kelly) believe this

116
Q

Tolman’s tourist rats

A

Proof for Jackass theory
Train system transported rats through a maze, and rats make cognitive maps of maze with latent learning
Rats only demonstrated learning when there was an incentive

117
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning without reinforcement

118
Q

Range of convenience

A

All events in which the construct system is useful

119
Q

Anxiety

A

Recognition that an event lies outside the range of convenience in a construct system

120
Q

Threat

A

Awareness of imminent comprehensive change in core constructs (massive reorganization of constructs)

121
Q

Psychopathology in personal construct/cognitive theory

A

Malfunctioning and thought disorders of the construct system where people do not create proper constructs

122
Q

Fixed role therapy

A

Challenges clients by encouraging them to represent themselves in new ways, through new roles
Involves homework in that the client must act like their new role for a period of time
Client collects data, tries new constructs + ways of thinking/behaving, and tests hypotheses (reality testing)

123
Q

3 conditions of change

A

(1) Experimentation of constructs/thinking/behaving
(2) New elements: objects, experiences, people
(3) collect validational data (reality testing)

124
Q

Beck & Ellis

A

Argued that irrational beliefs make us unhappy/sad
Developed CBT & rational-emotive therapy (RET)

125
Q

Dweck

A

Studied incremental & entity beliefs
Borrowed stable-variable attributions from Weiner

126
Q

Incremental beliefs

A

Growth mindset
Belief you can change your attributes

127
Q

Entity beliefs

A

Fixed mindset
Belief you can’t change your attributes

128
Q

6 basic assumptions of social cognitive theory:
(1) People as active agents (doers)
=People choose their friends who influence their behavior
(2) Cognitive processes exist (thinking)
=Your perception of a situation influences behavior
(3) Social origins of behavior
=Society/societal expectations influence behavior
(4) Behavior as situation-specific
=Only nice in front of authority figures
(5) Learning complex behavior without reward
=Latent learning (language), one-time learning (food aversion, fear of snakes)
(6) Emphasize empirical research
=We love the scientific method

A

(1) Rogers (Kelly; active contruers)
(2) Kelly
(3) Behaviorists (& post-Freudians)
(4) Behaviorists (anti-trait theorists)
(5) Post-behaviorists: Tolman (Rogers: personal growth)
(6) Behaviorists, Rogers, trait theorists

129
Q

Mischel

A

Studied delay of gratification (Marshmallow test), aggression in summer youth camps (behavioral signature), & cognitive-affective processing systems (CAPS)

130
Q

Behavioral signature

A

Individually distinctive profiles (stable patterns) of situation-behavior relationships
If… then
Not about average behavior tendencies

131
Q

Cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS)

A

Personality functions as a system of highly interconnected cognitive and emotional processes
Studied by Mischel

132
Q

Bandura

A

Studied observational learning/modeling (bobo dolls), reciprocal determinism, and self-efficacy

133
Q

Bobo dolls

A

Studied observational learning and behavior modeling
Children watched a model act aggressively toward the Bobo doll
Children had acquired the knowledge of behavior after watching someone perform, but it does not necessarily cause them to perform the behavior

134
Q

Acquisition

A

Learn new behaviors
Independent on reinforcement

135
Q

Performance

A

Produce learned behavior
Dependent on reinforcement

136
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

Behavior is a function of how perception influences the situation and vice versa B = f(P↔S)

137
Q

Reactive PxS interaction

A

Person perceives + reacts to situation
Studied by Caspi & Bem

138
Q

Proactive PxS interaction

A

Person actively selects their environment, and thus the situations they experience

139
Q

Evocative PxS interaction

A

Person’s attributes elicit certain reactions from others, which reinforces behavior
Studied by Caspi & Bem

140
Q

Self-efficacy

A

Self-perceived ability to cope with specific situations & influence and reach goals
Domain-specific

141
Q

Effects of self-efficacy on an individual

A

More likely to attempt & persist in difficult tasks
Have less anxiety & depression when approaching situations
Cope better with stress & disappointment

142
Q

Delay of gratification

A

Helps establish goal hierarchies & long-term goals + motivation
Studied by Mischel

143
Q

Guided mastery

A

Watches a model perform behaviors and helps perform behaviors themselves

144
Q

Schemas

A

Pre-existing mental structures that organize stimuli/world around us

145
Q

Self-verification

A

motivation to obtain information that is consistent with one’s self-concept

146
Q

Self-enhancement

A

Motive to maintain/enhance positive views of self

147
Q

Possible selves

A

Representation of who one may become, want to become, and are afraid of becoming
Help understand why people experience difficulties in self-control/willpower

148
Q

Higgins

A

Studied actual self – ought self

149
Q

Difference between ideal self vs. ought self

A

Not reaching ideal self makes us feel sad/depressed because of loss of potential positive outcomes
Not reaching ought self makes us feel anxious/agitated because not achieving obligations is an impending threat

150
Q

Weiner

A

Studied attributions (causal explanations) on 2 dimensions:
Internal – external
Stable – variable

151
Q

Weiner’s attribution model

A

Internal & stable: traits, ability
Internal & variable: effort, (self-efficacy)
External & stable: task difficulty
External & variable: luck, chance

psych 150 (4 decks)

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