exam 1 define Flashcards
Core components of personality
traits, states, acts
Traits
characters, values, temperament;
generally consistent, stable, and have internal cues
States
feelings, experiences, thoughts in reaction to external situations; private, short-term
Acts
behaviors, activities, habits;
observable, have internal/intentional causes
Related components to personality
physical appearance, social effects/evaluations (effect you have on others), talents/skills
Personality
characteristics of a person that describe and account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving
Freud’s philosophical view of the person
people are driven by unconscious processes (sex & aggression, anxiety & defense mechanisms)
Rogers’ philosophical view of the person
people are driven by conscious thoughts like self-actualization, congruence between self + experience, incongruence & defensive mechanisms (denial + distortion)
Comprehensiveness
theory fully explains and accounts for a wide variety of aspects in a phenomena
Parsimony
theory explains the phenomena in the simplest way so that it is understandable and can be generalized to many situations
5 areas personality theories should address
(1) structure, (2) process, (3) growth & development, (4) psychopathology, (5) change
Structure
how is a personality is organized and how are its basic, enduring parts are connected and interact with each other?
Process
what motivates someone to do something?
Growth & development
how does personality develop?
Psychopathology
how do people cope with stress/anxiety?
Change
can personality change over time?
Bandwidth & example
theory explains a wide range of phenomena
(ex. A radio has a bunch of channels)
Fidelity & example
theory explains the specifics of the phenomena
(ex. When you try to listen to a channel within a radio, it is clear and easy to hear)
Bandwidth-fidelity trade-off
sometimes, you can’t have both strong bandwidth and fidelity in a theory, so theorists will have to choose which one they want their theory to be stronger in
What does the Prof John and traffic cop scenario show?
the traffic cop’s speed monitor is reliable because it shows Prof John speeding at 90 mph every time he speeds BUT it may not be a valid measurement for safety because Prof John claims that he is safe whilst driving 90 mph
How is the amniotic fluid test a fallible measurement?
you can’t actually measure exactly how much fluid is in the amniotic sac (unreliable);
if you measure it multiple times, the amount will vary
Principle of aggregation & example
get a bunch of items/observations and average them to get a single aggregate/overall score
(ex. Instead of taking an exam with 1 question, where the only possible scores are 0% or 100%, it’s better to take an exam with 20 questions to get an accurate sense of how much a student has learned)
Example of the principle of aggregation
chicken oviduct story; single observations do not always capture the same results (unreliable), so you need to use 100 test tubes and average the results to account for those that are overestimations and underestimations
Reliability
how well the measurements/observations are stable across time, dependable, and replicable
Retest reliability & example
across time; how well the results of the same test given to the same people at different time points correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the same exam now and 2 weeks later)
Parallel test/alternate form reliability & example
across tests; how well one measure of the construct correlates to a similar measure of the same construct
(ex. A student should get the same score on form A as form B)
Split-half reliability/internal consistency & example
across items; how well the items within a measure correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the first 10 questions of the exam and on the last 10 questions of the exam)
Interjudge agreement reliability & example
across observers; how well the ratings of different observers correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score when graded by different GSI’s)
How can we make sure our theory is valid?
use LOTS of different data sources/methods
What does LOTS stand for?
Life data, Observer data, Test data, Self data
Life data
life history & records
(ex. School, criminal, employment)
Pros and Cons of Life data
pros: objective, you can measure ‘real world’ outcomes
cons: no info on thoughts, feelings and why
Observer data & example
rating made by others (teachers, parents, peers, trained observers) that are data coded by researchers
(ex. Admin in the back of the class)
Pros and Cons of Observer data
pros: provides multiple perspectives, others may know you better than yourself, can be less biased than self data
cons: observer bias, issues can arise with interjudge reliability, situation & being observed may influence behavior
Test data
experiments, standardized/timed tests
(ex. SAT/ACT, marshmallow experiment)
Pros and Cons of Test data
pros: objective, can control/manipulate situation, measure causal relationship
cons: articifical settings can mess with validity and generalizability, demands characteristics that wouldn’t happen naturally, experimenter expectancy effects, some phenomena can’t be studied in the lab
Self data
questionnaires, interviews
(ex. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)
Pros and Cons of Self data
pros: easy to get large samples & measure many variables at once, some phenomena can only be measured through Self data
cons: can’t claim casual relationships, people may not answer truthfully because of social desirability, people tend to agree with questions/statements
Validity
how well our measure actually measures what we want it to measure
Content validity
how well a measure comphrensively represents all facets of the construct
Criterion validity
how well a measure correlates with other measures on the same construct & how well it predicts future outcomes
Convergent/discriminant validity
how well a measure correlates with related measures & doesn’t correlate with unrelated measures
Pros and Cons of case studies & clinical research
pros: more natural settings, can study the full complexity of an individual
cons: unsystematic, subjective, no causal relationship
Pros and Cons of lab studies & experimental research
pros: manipulation of variables, objective, causal relationships
cons: some things can’t be studied in a lab, artificial settings pose issues for external validity/generalization, demand characteristics & experimenter expectancy effects
Pros and Cons of questionnaires & correlational research
pros: can study a wide variety of variables and their relationships, easily get large samples
cons: no causal relationships, self-reports have issues with validity + reliability, no in-depth studies of individuals
Nomothetic approach
use fixed measures that are applied and computed the same way for everyone to figure out common laws and principles that are generalizable for all individuals of a population
Pros and Cons of nomothetic approaches
pros: simple, easy to administer + analyze, objective
cons: items may be irrelevant, features of personality may not be included
Idiographic approach
use flexible measures that are tailored to an individual to get a full picture of the unique individual
Pros and Cons of idiographic approaches
pros: get more relevant info to the individual
cons: may need guided instructions for administering, more difficult and time-consuming to analyze
Longitudinal study
test the same individuals at multiple time points to see how their results have changed over time
4 problems with the ACL
(1) a lot of adjectives are applicable to most people (most people would say they’re ‘friendly’) so it’s not really meaningful
(2) some people check a bunch of boxes while some people check few boxes
(3) people go through it mindlessly without even thinking about it
(4) it’s unclear what it means when someone doesn’t check a box (NA or doesn’t understand)
Correlation
linear association between two variables from -1.00 to +1.00
Explain the meaning of a .40 correlation
strong correlation, usually seen in medical and social sciences; changes odds from 50/50 to 70/30 (40% increase)
Explain the meaning of a .30 correlation
typical correlation in research; changes odds from 50/50 to 65/35 (30% increase)
Explain the meaning of a .08 correlation
small correlation, but can be meaningful; aspirin has a .08 correlation for avoiding heart attack; changes odds from 50/50 to 54/46 (8% increase in not getting a heart attack)
Can you infer causation from correlation? & example
aw hell no! There may be confounding/3rd variables that may explain the correlation
(ex. Height & intelligence are correlated; good nutriention can lead to taller height and better brain development)
4 reasons for studying Freud
(1) he discovered new techniques (free association, dream interpretation, transference, projective tests) which informed subsequent research
(2) he had rich observations from in-depth case studies
(3) his theory led to more psychological theories as others built upon his work or made theories that went against his work
4) he addressed topics central to the human experience that were not covered on other theories
(ex. Dreams, sexual desires, internal mental conflicts, infant psychological life)
Psychic determinism
theorizes that all mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious or preexisting mental complexes
Big 2 instincts and their evolutionary basis
sex & aggression; selfish gene (we wanna pass down our genes)
Why do humans have sexual & aggressive drives?
sex-linked with physical pleasure; aggression linked with survival
Conscious
thoughts and perceptions that are you actively thinking about
Pre-conscious
memories, stored knowledge that you can pull from when needed
Unconscious
fears, violence, unacceptable desires/impulses that you cannot access without the help of the trained professional
Dichotic listening task & example
listen to right ear (conscious listening) while a story plays in the left ear (unconscious listening); story on your left influences your perception of of the story on the right
(ex. River bank vs. money bank)
What does the dichotic listening task prove?
System 1 & 2 communicate with each other; System 1 sends unconscious messages from the left ear to the to System 2 while System 2 was consciously interpreting the right ear
Cocktail party phenomenon
our unconscious monitors the environment and pings the conscious when important info is found
(ex. Name, potential dangers, sex)
Verbal slips & example
slip of the tongue that is motivated by and reveals information from our unconscious; Freud believed this occurs when our unconscious interferes with our conscious thoughts
(ex. Tennis match “nice to ‘beat’ you!”)
Automatic vigilance example
Stroop color-interference paradigm: difficulty naming the color of a word when it doesn’t match the spelling of a word
Id
animalistic impulses, source of drive energy (sex, aggression, life, death), seeks to relieve immediate tension through the pleasure principle, satisfaction through action/imagination
Ego
satisfies the id with reality and the demands of the superego in mind like a balancing act (dynamic equilibrium), follow the reality principle
Superego
morals, ideals, rewards good behavior with pride/self-love and punishes bad behavior with guilt/inferiority, overly harsh & unrealistic, can be forgiving because of circumstances
Pleasure principle
pursue pleasure, avoid pain
Reality principle
delay gratification and uses reality to get the maximum pleasure and minimum pain
Primary process thinking & example
reflective habit, unconscious, illogical, can’t tell the difference between fantasy and reality, child-like, emotional, needs immediate gratification, used by the id to release tension and fulfill the pleasure principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to have sex with them)
Secondary process thinking & example
takes effort, conscious, logical, tests reality, develops over time, used by ego to fulfill the reality principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to ask them on a date)
System 1
(1) evolutionary older, limbic system
(2) fast but inaccurate
(3) effortless
(4) automatic;
falls under unconscious primary process thinking
System 2
(1) evolutionarily newer, brain cortex
(2) slow but detailed
(3) takes effort and uses limited capacity
(4) can be controlled and therefore changed;
falls under conscious secondary process thinking
Freud’s psychosexual vs. Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development
0-1: Oral, Trust vs Mistrust
2-3: Anal, Autonomy vs Shame
4-5: Phallic, Initiative vs Guilt
6-Adolescence: Latent, Industry vs Inferiority
Adolescence: Genital, Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Late Adulthood: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Oral stage
ages 0-1, fixation in mouth area, sucking instinct; same time as Trust vs Mistrust
Anal stage
ages 2-3; fixation on anus, conflict between retention and expulsion, learning self-control; same time as Autonomy vs Shame
Phallic stage
ages 4-5, fixated on genitals, Oedipus/Electra complex; same time as Initiative vs Guilt
Latent stage
6-adolescence, sexual/aggressive tendencies are dormant/hidden/repressed, focus on asexual forces (school, friendships, etc.); same time as Industry vs Inferiority
Genital stage
adolescence, onset of puberty, Freud’s final stage where people reach ‘maturity’; same time as Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
Trust vs Mistrust
ages 0-1, learn if primary caregivers are trustworthy, responsive parenting; same time as Oral stage
Autonomy vs Shame
ages 2-3, learning independence, patient parenting vs restrictive parenting; same time as Anal stage
Initiative vs Guilt
ages 4-5, taking satisfaction in accomplishments, actions begin to have purpose, developing sense of right and wrong; same time as Phallic stage
Industry vs Inferiority
6-adolescence, developing competence, learning skills to be a successful member of society; same time as Latent stage
Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
adolescence, developing an identity; same time as Genital stage
Intimacy vs Isolation
early adulthood, finding a partner
Generativity vs. Stagnation
middle adulthood, giving back to the next generation
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
late adulthood, looking back to see if life was fulfilling
Why do we like Erikson’s psychosocial stages better than Freud’s psychosexual stages?
included both biological + social forces, addressed entire life cycle
Marcia’s identity statuses
achievement, in moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion
Achievement
commitment with exploration
In moratorium
no commitment with exploration
Foreclosure
commitment without exploration
Diffusion
no commitment and no exploration
Harlow’s monkeys
monkeys chose cloth mother over metal milk mother, suggesting the need for physical contact and closeness; evidence against Freud’s oral stage of development
Fixation
when a person becomes preoccupied with themes related to a certain erogenous zone; no evidence for this
(ex. People who weren’t breastfed don’t all end up as smokers)
Regression
returning to an earlier stage based on a fixation; usually happens when people are stressed/frustrated/anxious
Denial & example
refuse to accept something in reality that happened/is happening/will happen
(ex. “If I pretend that I am not taking the exam, I won’t have to do it”)
Reaction formation & example
transforming behavior so that you are doing the opposite of your undesired thoughts/impulses
(ex. Protesting in front of planned parenthood after thinking about getting an abortion)
Displacement & example
moving emotions to someone/something else less threatening to avoid directly dealing with it
(ex. You cry when you lose a pencil after losing a grandparent)
Rationalization & example
distorting motives/beliefs to match unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
(ex. Telling yourself you didn’t want the promotion anyway because you like having less responsibilities)
Suppression & example
consciously deciding to push thoughts/emotions into the pre-conscious to deal with later when you have the resources to deal with them
(ex. Hearing a racist comment while you’re busy at work but then later processing that comment when you get home)
Sublimation & example
channel negative emotions/feelings into a socially acceptable outlet
(ex. Playing on drum set after a bad day at school)
Free association
when clients say whatever comes to mind without censoring; to uncover about a person’s primary process thoughts & unconscious thoughts/feelings/conflicts
Catharsis
release of emotions after talking about one’s problems
Transference & example
transferring attitudes toward a new person based on your attitudes on someone you already know
(ex. You think that your friend acts like your brother because they have similar interests, but they really aren’t similar)
Projective tests
respondents answer in open ended format to ambiguous stimuli; response interpretation is hidden (not obvious); measures unconscious thoughts/feelings/tendencies/meanings of the world and emotional themes + thinking styles in day-to-day thoughts
Rorschach Test
observe what a person sees in an inkblot, which provides a clue into their unconscious
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
tell a story from an image; scored by identifying and counting prevalence of the need for affiliation, power, achievement
5 issues with projective tests
validity issues:
(1) unclear content validity because images may not relate to modern people,
(1) low criterion validity because they don’t predict future outcomes well,
(3) unclear discriminant validity because response differences can be due to confounding variables like verbal ability and education
reliability issues:
(1) low test-retest reliability because people usually see different things or come up with different stories,
(2) low inter-judge agreement because it’s hard for clinicians because of subjectivity
Structured tests
respondents answered in fixed response format to clear, unambiguous stimuli; response interpretation is content valid but not obvious
Are there any other needs besides sex & aggression?
social (closeness, intimacy, attachment, generativity),
competence (exploration, understanding, skills),
identity/spiritual (understanding the self within the universe, personal meaning, religion)
Adler
studied power, inferiority complex, birth order
Jung
studied collective unconscious, archetypes, spiritual concerns
Anima/animus:
feminine/masculine side of a person
Horney
developed 3 neurotic trends/movements (moving toward/against/away), breast & womb envy
Moving toward & example
excessive desire to feel accepted, needed, approved of; dependent; unlimited desire for affection by becoming unselfish, undemanding, and self-sacrificing
(ex. Staying in a relationship because you’re afraid of being alone)
Moving against & example
deny a need for others because you feel like the world is against you
(ex. Skeptical that someone is pranking you if they tell you they like you)
Moving away & example
avoid emotional intimacy with others even if they want it
(ex. Your crush confesses to you, but you ghost them)
Breast/womb envy
male envy of pregnancy, nursing, motherhood; leads men to try to be superior in other fields;
Horney said that Freud’s penis envy is a reaction to this
Ainsworth
studied attachment theory in infants; developed 3-category model of attachment
Attachment theory in infants
observation of infant behavior during separation and return of caregiver in a room of toys where a stranger enters
3-category model of attachment
developed by Ainsworth, used by Shaver; secure (most common), anxious-avoidant (uninvolved), anxious-ambivalent (needy)
Shaver
studied attachment theory in adults through a newspaper study; used 3-category model of attachment
Secure (3-category)
most common in infants, comfortable asking for and accepting support from others, committed + stable relationships, higher self-esteem, reflect on childhood in realistic ways
Anxious-avoidant
uninvolved infant behavior, disinterested in close relationships, actively denies stressful situations, difficulty asking for help, more likely to break up first
Anxious-ambivalent
needy infant behavior, constantly seek intimacy and are distressed when they feel their partner is not showing enough, partner’s departure is anxiety-provoking, repeated breakups and get-togethers, unstable self-esteem & highly emotional (especially under stress)
Bartholomew
studied attachment theory in adults; developed 4-category model of attachment
4-category model of attachment
secure, dismissing, preoccupied, fearful
Secure (4-category)
positive self + other
Dismissing
positive self & negative other
Preoccupied
negative self & positive other
Fearful
negative self + other
Bowlby
started attachment behavioral system (ABS) theory and argued that infants develop internal working models
Attachment behavioral system (ABS)
infants develop attachment to major caregivers and use this attachment as a ‘secure base’ for exploration + separation; said to be biologically programmed
Internal working models
mental representations of oneself and primary caregivers; associated with emotions; provides basis for development of expectations in future relationships
6 strengths of psychoanalytic theory
(1) developed new techniques for research & therapy (free association, dream interpretation, transference, projective tests)
(2) rich observations through case studies
(3) accounts for many aspects of behavior and recognizes the complexity of behavior
(4) unconscious processes are real (even if Freud didn’t get it all right)
(5) treats individuals as as organization system
(6) holistic in nature
4 weaknesses of psychoanalytic theory
(1) imprecise definitions can’t be tested empirically
(2) not falsifiable (one behavior is an instinct, opposite behavior is a defense, another behavior is a compromise)
(3) neglects needs/motives other than sex and aggression (social, competence, identity/spiritual)
(4) only explains behavior, cannot predict behavior
Phenomenological approach
focus on the phenomena of a person’s mind (perceptions + experiences) and how people view and experience themselves and the world; people are driven by self-actualization; includes conscious + unconscious, but more focus on conscious
Phenomenological field
subjective reality, what we are aware of (experiences, thoughts, behaviors, other people)
Actual self
who we believe we are now
Ideal self
who we want to become
Self-concept
organized/consistent perceptions and thoughts associated with the self that are consciously accessible
3 characteristics of healthy self-concept
(1) congruence between self + experience,
(2) openness to experience,
(3) lack of defensiveness
Schwartz’s value circumplex
stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, conformity, tradition, security, power, achievement, hedonism
2 dimensions of Schwartz’s value circumplex
(1) openness to change vs conservation,
(2) self-enhancement vs self-transcendence
Stimulation
exciting life, novelty;
toward openness to change & near self-enhancement
Self-direction
creativity, freedom;
toward openness to change & near self-transcendence
Universalism
welfare for all;
toward self-transcendence & near openness to change
Benevolence
welfare of people in frequent close contact;
toward self-transcendence & near conservation
Conformity
obedience, restraint;
toward conservation & near self-transcendence
Tradition
humility, devoutness, customs/ideas;
toward conservation & near self-transcendence
Security
social order in society, relationships, and self;
toward conservation & near self-enhancement
Power
authority, wealth, control/dominance;
toward self-enhancement & near conservation
Achievement
success, ambition, competence;
toward self-enchancement & near openness to change
Hedonism
pleasure, gratification;
equally self-enhancement & openness to change
Congruence
when how one views themself (perceived self/self-concept) and their experiences are the same (actual self)
Self-experience discrepancy/incongruence
when the actual and perceived self are different;
causes anxiety/tension/internal confusion;
people become motivated to resolve it by changing the actual self (improving behavior) or by changing their ideal self (changing thoughts/rationale);
they may experience defensive processes (denial & distortion)
Self-actualization
people are forward moving and so they tend to actualize, maintain, and enhance themselves to reach their full potential;
unconditional positive regard is required so individuals can explore freely and figure out their identities
Relationship between social roles & self-concept
individuals with many/large differences between social roles (offspring, friend, student, etc.) were more likely to be anxious, depressed, and have low self-esteem
Self-concept consistency across roles
too much variability in self-concept can be bad or mental health because it indicates fragmentation + an integrated ‘core’ self;
some variability can be good because it allows individuals to use specialized-role identities to respond flexibly/adaptively to various role requirements
Self-consistency
people seek to maintain their own self-structure and behave in ways that are consistent with their self-concept, even if it is unrewarding
Self-consistency & psychological adjustment
poorly adjusted individuals are more likely to deny awareness to threatening stimuli, cheat, and fail to take simple actions to make themselves feel better as these behaviors are more consistent with their self-concept; self-fulfilling prophecy
Need for positive regard
people seek warmth, liking, respect, and acceptance; can be seen in infants’ needs for love + attention
Unconditional positive regard
if received, there is no need to deny experiences that are inconsistent with self-concept; those who receive this become well-adjusted
Conditional positive regard
if received, then the individual will deny or distort experiences that are inconsistent with self-concept; those who receive this become poorly-adjusted
Authoritarian influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
would give child conditional positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come from how well they perform the acts that please their parent
Permissive influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
wouldn’t give child any positive regard or inconsistent positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come from what acts get their parents’ attention
Authoritative influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
would give child unconditional positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come intrinsically
Client-centered therapy
therapist reflects what the client says and is interested in understanding how client experiences self + world, sees client as an equal partner, and identifies conditions that interfere with psychological health + growth
3 qualities of a good therapist
(1) unconditional positive regard (understanding and care for client)
(2) empathic understanding (be present and try to understand underlying meaning + feelings)
(3) congruence/genuineness (be real/open/transparent with feelings toward client, even if they’re negative instead of lying/masking)
Maslow
developed hierarchy of needs
Hierarchy of needs
BS but it’s that you need to take care of your physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem needs (in that order) before reaching self-actualization
Ways to assess the actual + ideal self
Q-sort, ACL, Schwartz’s value circumplex
Q-sort
sort a bunch of statements about the self into categories ranging from most to least characteristic in a normal distribution; can be used to measure actual or ideal self; shows person’s perceptions of parts of their phenomenal fields
Adjective checklist (ACL)
check off a bunch of adjectives that describe oneself; can be used to compare actual and ideal self
3 sensory bases of self
(1) double stimulation (feeling yourself touching and being touched),
(2) body boundary (separation from others),
(3) mirror-image self-recognition
3 cognitive bases of self
(1) self-esteem (I am doing the thinking and I am being thought about),
(2) covertness (covering up inner emotions from others),
(3) identity (who you see is who you are)
Red-dot experiments
how to see if children & animals have self-recognition;
put dot on forehead and put mirror in front of subject; if they recognize themselves, they will look surprised at dot or try to rub it off;
only passed by 3 species (humans at least 18 mo.-2 yrs, great apes, dolphins, elephants, magpie birds)
Self-awareness
state in which we are concerned about our overt aspects (looks, appearance, self-presentation)
Self-consciousness
trait in which we are concerned with our covert aspects (thoughts, feelings, fantasies)
Item examples for self-consciousness
I always examine my motives (private),
I am concerned about my appearance (public),
I am very aware of my feelings (private),
The last thing I do before I leave the house is look in the mirror (public)
Distinction between private and public self-awareness
private: introspection that leads to clarification & intensification
public: feel attention to self as a social subject, which can lead to a state of incongruence
State of incongruence
when we notice a difference between inner and outer self; leads to defense mechanisms (denial & distortion)
Denial
preserve self-concept by pretending experience didn’t happen
Distortion
preserve self-concept by allowing the experience into awareness in a form that is consistent with self
What are the two processes that happen during private self-awareness?
clarification & intensification
Clarification
understanding self better; can lead to more validity in self-reports and attitude-behavior consistencies
Intensification
negative experiences are magnified; can lead to great sadness or greater anger turning into aggression
Alcohol’s effects on private-self awareness
lowers private self-awareness so people have less clarity on who they are and what’s important to them & feel less intense emotions
Self-perception in narcissists
tend to overestimate themselves and dismiss negative feedback to preserve self-consistency with high self-regard
Differences in more and less narcissistic individuals
more narcissistic individuals prefer to watch themselves on video or look into a mirror for extended periods of time while less narcissistic individuals felt uncomfortable;
more narcissistic individuals’ self-evaluations go up after watching video while less narcissistic individuals’ self-evaluations temporarily went down
Relationship between self-enhancement bias & self-esteem
individuals who have higher self-esteem are more likely to self-enhance, while individuals with lower self-esteem are more likely to to self-efface
Nature & functioning of self-esteem/self-regard & cultural differences
patterns of social interaction predict self-reported patterns
(ex. Americans are more biased toward reporting high self-esteem (left-skewed) while Japanese individuals had no bias (normal distribution) toward reporting self-esteem)
Ryff’s 6 aspects of well-being
self-acceptance/self-esteem, personal growth, autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive relations with others
Self-acceptance/self-esteem
positive attitudes about self, acknowledge + accept good and bad qualities
Personal growth
open to new experiences, see self as growing + improving, has a sense of realizing full potential
Autonomy
self-determining, independent, resist social pressures, evaluate self by personal standards
Purpose in life
have goals and sense of direction, feel like there is meaning to life (both past and present)
Environmental mastery
has sense of competence in managing environment, effectively uses surrounding opportunities for personal needs/values, feels like they have control over external world
Positive relations with others
have warm/satisfying/trusting relationships, concern with welfare of others, empathy, understand give + take in relationships
4 strengths of the phenomenological approach
(1) focuses on important aspects of human existence
(2) attempts to recognize personality holistically
(3) tries to integrate humanism & empiricism
(4) developed important approach toward therapy/counseling that is applicable to many fields
5 weaknesses of the phenomenological approach
(1) excludes certain phenomena (unconscious processes)
(2) lack of objective measures other than self-report
(3) isn’t fully phenomenological since observations can be biased
(4) structure of the self and need for positive regard varies by culture
(5) not much info on growth & development
4 differences between Freud’s and Roger’s theories
(1) unconscious processes,
(2) structure,
(3) motivational processes,
(4) goals of therapy
Difference in unconscious processes
Freud: unconscious processes are extremely important as it is the drive/basis for motivations + behavior
Rogers: not important, more focus on conscious processes
Difference in structure
Freud: based on interactions between id, ego, superego and the interactions between the unconscious, pre-conscious, and conscious
Rogers: based on similarities/differences between the self, ideal self, and experiences in the world
Difference in motivational processes
Freud: energy model, sex + aggression, life + death, anxiety + defenses
Rogers: self-actualization, congruence, incongruence + defenses
Difference in goals of therapy
Freud: use free association, dream interpretation, projective tests to tap into unconscious conflicts from childhood fixations
Rogers: use client-centered therapy where clients are equal partners and to identify conditions that interfere with psychological health and growth; therapists create a therapeutic atmosphere that has unconditional positive regard, emphatic understanding, and congruence/genuineness
