exam 1 identify Flashcards
traits, states, acts
Core components of personality
characters, values, temperament;
generally consistent, stable, and have internal cues
Traits
feelings, experiences, thoughts in reaction to external situations; private, short-term
States
behaviors, activities, habits;
observable, have internal/intentional causes
Acts
physical appearance, social effects/evaluations (effect you have on others), talents/skills
Related components to personality
characteristics of a person that describe and account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving
Personality
people are driven by unconscious processes (sex & aggression, anxiety & defense mechanisms)
Freud’s philosophical view of the person
people are driven by conscious thoughts like self-actualization, congruence between self + experience, incongruence & defensive mechanisms (denial + distortion)
Rogers’ philosophical view of the person
theory fully explains and accounts for a wide variety of aspects in a phenomena
Comprehensiveness
theory explains the phenomena in the simplest way so that it is understandable and can be generalized to many situations
Parsimony
(1) structure, (2) process, (3) growth & development, (4) psychopathology, (5) change
5 areas personality theories should address
how is a personality is organized and how are its basic, enduring parts are connected and interact with each other?
Structure
what motivates someone to do something?
Process
how does personality develop?
Growth & development
how do people cope with stress/anxiety?
Psychopathology
can personality change over time?
Change
theory explains a wide range of phenomena
(ex. A radio has a bunch of channels)
Bandwidth & example
theory explains the specifics of the phenomena
(ex. When you try to listen to a channel within a radio, it is clear and easy to hear)
Fidelity & example
sometimes, you can’t have both strong bandwidth and fidelity in a theory, so theorists will have to choose which one they want their theory to be stronger in
Bandwidth-fidelity trade-off
the traffic cop’s speed monitor is reliable because it shows Prof John speeding at 90 mph every time he speeds BUT it may not be a valid measurement for safety because Prof John claims that he is safe whilst driving 90 mph
What does the Prof John and traffic cop scenario show?
you can’t actually measure exactly how much fluid is in the amniotic sac (unreliable);
if you measure it multiple times, the amount will vary
How is the amniotic fluid test a fallible measurement?
get a bunch of items/observations and average them to get a single aggregate/overall score
(ex. Instead of taking an exam with 1 question, where the only possible scores are 0% or 100%, it’s better to take an exam with 20 questions to get an accurate sense of how much a student has learned)
Principle of aggregation & example
chicken oviduct story; single observations do not always capture the same results (unreliable), so you need to use 100 test tubes and average the results to account for those that are overestimations and underestimations
Example of the principle of aggregation
how well the measurements/observations are stable across time, dependable, and replicable
Reliability
across time; how well the results of the same test given to the same people at different time points correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the same exam now and 2 weeks later)
Retest reliability & example
across tests; how well one measure of the construct correlates to a similar measure of the same construct
(ex. A student should get the same score on form A as form B)
Parallel test/alternate form reliability & example
across items; how well the items within a measure correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the first 10 questions of the exam and on the last 10 questions of the exam)
Split-half reliability/internal consistency & example
across observers; how well the ratings of different observers correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score when graded by different GSI’s)
Interjudge agreement reliability & example
use LOTS of different data sources/methods
How can we make sure our theory is valid?
Life data, Observer data, Test data, Self data
What does LOTS stand for?
life history & records
(ex. School, criminal, employment)
Life data
pros: objective, you can measure ‘real world’ outcomes
cons: no info on thoughts, feelings and why
Pros and Cons of Life data
rating made by others (teachers, parents, peers, trained observers) that are data coded by researchers
(ex. Admin in the back of the class)
Observer data
pros: provides multiple perspectives, others may know you better than yourself, can be less biased than self data
cons: observer bias, issues can arise with interjudge reliability, situation & being observed may influence behavior
Pros and Cons of Observer data
experiments, standardized/timed tests
(ex. SAT/ACT, marshmallow experiment)
Test data
pros: objective, can control/manipulate situation, measure causal relationship
cons: articifical settings can mess with validity and generalizability, demands characteristics that wouldn’t happen naturally, experimenter expectancy effects, some phenomena can’t be studied in the lab
Pros and Cons of Test data
questionnaires, interviews
(ex. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)
Self data
pros: easy to get large samples & measure many variables at once, some phenomena can only be measured through Self data
cons: can’t claim casual relationships, people may not answer truthfully because of social desirability, people tend to agree with questions/statements
Pros and Cons of Self data
how well our measure actually measures what we want it to measure
Validity
how well a measure comphrensively represents all facets of the construct
Content validity
how well a measure correlates with other measures on the same construct & how well it predicts future outcomes
Criterion validity
how well a measure correlates with related measures & doesn’t correlate with unrelated measures
Convergent/discriminant validity
pros: more natural settings, can study the full complexity of an individual
cons: unsystematic, subjective, no causal relationship
Pros and Cons of case studies & clinical research
pros: manipulation of variables, objective, causal relationships
cons: some things can’t be studied in a lab, artificial settings pose issues for external validity/generalization, demand characteristics & experimenter expectancy effects
Pros and Cons of lab studies & experimental research
pros: can study a wide variety of variables and their relationships, easily get large samples
cons: no causal relationships, self-reports have issues with validity + reliability, no in-depth studies of individuals
Pros and Cons of questionnaires & correlational research
use fixed measures that are applied and computed the same way for everyone to figure out common laws and principles that are generalizable for all individuals of a population
Nomothetic approach
pros: simple, easy to administer + analyze, objective
cons: items may be irrelevant, features of personality may not be included
Pros and Cons of nomothetic approaches
use flexible measures that are tailored to an individual to get a full picture of the unique individual
Idiographic approach
pros: get more relevant info to the individual
cons: may need guided instructions for administering, more difficult and time-consuming to analyze
Pros and Cons of idiographic approaches
test the same individuals at multiple time points to see how their results have changed over time
Longitudinal study
(1) a lot of adjectives are applicable to most people (most people would say they’re ‘friendly’) so it’s not really meaningful
(2) some people check a bunch of boxes while some people check few boxes
(3) people go through it mindlessly without even thinking about it
(4) it’s unclear what it means when someone doesn’t check a box (NA or doesn’t understand)
4 problems with the ACL
linear association between two variables from -1.00 to +1.00
Correlation
strong correlation, usually seen in medical and social sciences; changes odds from 50/50 to 70/30 (40% increase)
Explain the meaning of a .40 correlation
typical correlation in research; changes odds from 50/50 to 65/35 (30% increase)
Explain the meaning of a .30 correlation
small correlation, but can be meaningful; aspirin has a .08 correlation for avoiding heart attack; changes odds from 50/50 to 54/46 (8% increase in not getting a heart attack)
Explain the meaning of a .08 correlation
aw hell no! There may be confounding/3rd variables that may explain the correlation
(ex. Height & intelligence are correlated; good nutriention can lead to taller height and better brain development)
Can you infer causation from correlation? & example
(1) he discovered new techniques (free association, dream interpretation, transference, projective tests) which informed subsequent research
(2) he had rich observations from in-depth case studies
(3) his theory led to more psychological theories as others built upon his work or made theories that went against his work
4) he addressed topics central to the human experience that were not covered on other theories
(ex. Dreams, sexual desires, internal mental conflicts, infant psychological life)
4 reasons for studying Freud
theorizes that all mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious or preexisting mental complexes
Psychic determinism
sex & aggression; selfish gene (we wanna pass down our genes)
Big 2 instincts and their evolutionary basis
sex-linked with physical pleasure; aggression linked with survival
Why do humans have sexual & aggressive drives?
thoughts and perceptions that are you actively thinking about
Conscious
memories, stored knowledge that you can pull from when needed
Pre-conscious
fears, violence, unacceptable desires/impulses that you cannot access without the help of the trained professional
Unconscious
listen to right ear (conscious listening) while a story plays in the left ear (unconscious listening); story on your left influences your perception of of the story on the right
(ex. River bank vs. money bank)
Dichotic listening task & example
System 1 & 2 communicate with each other; System 1 sends unconscious messages from the left ear to the to System 2 while System 2 was consciously interpreting the right ear
What does the dichotic listening task prove?
our unconscious monitors the environment and pings the conscious when important info is found
(ex. Name, potential dangers, sex)
Cocktail party phenomenon
slip of the tongue that is motivated by and reveals information from our unconscious; Freud believed this occurs when our unconscious interferes with our conscious thoughts
(ex. Tennis match “nice to ‘beat’ you!”)
Verbal slips & example
Stroop color-interference paradigm: difficulty naming the color of a word when it doesn’t match the spelling of a word
Automatic vigilance example
animalistic impulses, source of drive energy (sex, aggression, life, death), seeks to relieve immediate tension through the pleasure principle, satisfaction through action/imagination
Id
satisfies the id with reality and the demands of the superego in mind like a balancing act (dynamic equilibrium), follow the reality principle
Ego
morals, ideals, rewards good behavior with pride/self-love and punishes bad behavior with guilt/inferiority, overly harsh & unrealistic, can be forgiving because of circumstances
Superego
pursue pleasure, avoid pain
Pleasure principle
delay gratification and uses reality to get the maximum pleasure and minimum pain
Reality principle
reflective habit, unconscious, illogical, can’t tell the difference between fantasy and reality, child-like, emotional, needs immediate gratification, used by the id to release tension and fulfill the pleasure principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to have sex with them)
Primary process thinking & example
takes effort, conscious, logical, tests reality, develops over time, used by ego to fulfill the reality principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to ask them on a date)
Secondary process thinking & example
(1) evolutionary older, limbic system
(2) fast but inaccurate
(3) effortless
(4) automatic;
falls under unconscious primary process thinking
System 1
(1) evolutionary newer, brain cortex
(2) slow but detailed
(3) takes effort and uses limited capacity
(4) can be controlled and therefore changed;
falls under conscious secondary process thinking
System 2
0-1: Oral, Trust vs Mistrust
2-3: Anal, Autonomy vs Shame
4-5: Phallic, Initiative vs Guilt
6-Adolescence: Latent, Industry vs Inferiority
Adolescence: Genital, Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Late Adulthood: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Freud’s psychosexual vs. Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development
ages 0-1, fixation in mouth area, sucking instinct; same time as Trust vs Mistrust
Oral stage
ages 2-3; fixation on anus, conflict between retention and expulsion, learning self-control; same time as Autonomy vs Shame
Anal stage
ages 4-5, fixated on genitals, Oedipus/Electra complex; same time as Initiative vs Guilt
Phallic stage
6-adolescence, sexual/aggressive tendencies are dormant/hidden/repressed, focus on asexual forces (school, friendships, etc.); same time as Industry vs Inferiority
Latent stage
adolescence, onset of puberty, Freud’s final stage where people reach ‘maturity’; same time as Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
Genital stage
ages 0-1, learn if primary caregivers are trustworthy, responsive parenting; same time as Oral stage
Trust vs Mistrust
ages 2-3, learning independence, patient parenting vs restrictive parenting; same time as Anal stage
Autonomy vs Shame
ages 4-5, taking satisfaction in accomplishments, actions begin to have purpose, developing sense of right and wrong; same time as Phallic stage
Initiative vs Guilt
6-adolescence, developing competence, learning skills to be a successful member of society; same time as Latent stage
Industry vs Inferiority
adolescence, developing an identity; same time as Genital stage
Ego Identity vs Role Confusion
early adulthood, finding a partner
Intimacy vs Isolation
middle adulthood, giving back to the next generation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
late adulthood, looking back to see if life was fulfilling
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
included both biological + social forces, addressed entire life cycle
Why do we like Erikson’s psychosocial stages better than Freud’s psychosexual stages?
achievement, in moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion
Marcia’s identity statuses
commitment with exploration
Achievement
no commitment with exploration
In moratorium
commitment without exploration
Foreclosure
no commitment and no exploration
Diffusion
monkeys chose cloth mother over metal milk mother, suggesting the need for physical contact and closeness; evidence against Freud’s oral stage of development
Harlow’s monkeys
when a person becomes preoccupied with themes related to a certain erogenous zone; no evidence for this
(ex. People who weren’t breastfed don’t all end up as smokers)
Fixation
returning to an earlier stage based on a fixation; usually happens when people are stressed/frustrated/anxious
Regression
refuse to accept something in reality that happened/is happening/will happen
(ex. “If I pretend that I am not taking the exam, I won’t have to do it”)
Denial & example
transforming behavior so that you are doing the opposite of your undesired thoughts/impulses
(ex. Protesting in front of planned parenthood after thinking about getting an abortion)
Reaction formation & example
moving emotions to someone/something else less threatening to avoid directly dealing with it
(ex. You cry when you lose a pencil after losing a grandparent)
Displacement & example
distorting motives/beliefs to match unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
(ex. Telling yourself you didn’t want the promotion anyway because you like having less responsibilities)
Rationalization & example
consciously deciding to push thoughts/emotions into the pre-conscious to deal with later when you have the resources to deal with them
(ex. Hearing a racist comment while you’re busy at work but then later processing that comment when you get home)
Suppression & example
channel negative emotions/feelings into a socially acceptable outlet
(ex. Playing on drum set after a bad day at school)
Sublimation & example
when clients say whatever comes to mind without censoring; to uncover about a person’s primary process thoughts & unconscious thoughts/feelings/conflicts
Free association
release of emotions after talking about one’s problems
Catharsis
transferring attitudes toward a new person based on your attitudes on someone you already know
(ex. You think that your friend acts like your brother because they have similar interests, but they really aren’t similar)
Transference & example
respondents answer in open ended format to ambiguous stimuli; response interpretation is hidden (not obvious); measures unconscious thoughts/feelings/tendencies/meanings of the world and emotional themes + thinking styles in day-to-day thoughts
Projective tests
observe what a person sees in an inkblot, which provides a clue into their unconscious
Rorschach Test
tell a story from an image; scored by identifying and counting prevalence of the need for affiliation, power, achievement
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
validity issues:
(1) unclear content validity because images may not relate to modern people,
(1) low criterion validity because they don’t predict future outcomes well,
(3) unclear discriminant validity because response differences can be due to confounding variables like verbal ability and education
reliability issues:
(1) low test-retest reliability because people usually see different things or come up with different stories,
(2) low inter-judge agreement because it’s hard for clinicians because of subjectivity
5 issues with projective tests
respondents answered in fixed response format to clear, unambiguous stimuli; response interpretation is content valid but not obvious
Structured tests
social (closeness, intimacy, attachment, generativity),
competence (exploration, understanding, skills),
identity/spiritual (understanding the self within the universe, personal meaning, religion)
Are there any other needs besides sex & aggression?
studied power, inferiority complex, birth order
Adler
studied collective unconscious, archetypes, spiritual concerns
Jung
feminine/masculine side of a person
Anima/animus:
developed 3 neurotic trends/movements (moving toward/against/away), breast & womb envy
Horney
excessive desire to feel accepted, needed, approved of; dependent; unlimited desire for affection by becoming unselfish, undemanding, and self-sacrificing
(ex. Staying in a relationship because you’re afraid of being alone)
Moving toward & example
deny a need for others because you feel like the world is against you
(ex. Skeptical that someone is pranking you if they tell you they like you)
Moving against & example
avoid emotional intimacy with others even if they want it
(ex. Your crush confesses to you, but you ghost them)
Moving away & example
male envy of pregnancy, nursing, motherhood; leads men to try to be superior in other fields;
Horney said that Freud’s penis envy is a reaction to this
Breast/womb envy
studied attachment theory in infants; developed 3-category model of attachment
Ainsworth
observation of infant behavior during separation and return of caregiver in a room of toys where a stranger enters
Attachment theory in infants
developed by Ainsworth, used by Shaver; secure (most common), anxious-avoidant (uninvolved), anxious-ambivalent (needy)
3-category model of attachment
studied attachment theory in adults through a newspaper study; used 3-category model of attachment
Shaver
most common in infants, comfortable asking for and accepting support from others, committed + stable relationships, higher self-esteem, reflect on childhood in realistic ways
Secure (3-category)
uninvolved infant behavior, disinterested in close relationships, actively denies stressful situations, difficulty asking for help, more likely to break up first
Anxious-avoidant
needy infant behavior, constantly seek intimacy and are distressed when they feel their partner is not showing enough, partner’s departure is anxiety-provoking, repeated breakups and get-togethers, unstable self-esteem & highly emotional (especially under stress)
Anxious-ambivalent
studied attachment theory in adults; developed 4-category model of attachment
Bartholomew
secure, dismissing, preoccupied, fearful
4-category model of attachment
positive self + other
Secure (4-category)
positive self & negative other
Dismissing
negative self & positive other
Preoccupied
negative self + other
Fearful
started attachment behavioral system (ABS) theory and argued that infants develop internal working models
Bowlby
infants develop attachment to major caregivers and use this attachment as a ‘secure base’ for exploration + separation; said to be biologically programmed
Attachment behavioral system (ABS)
mental representations of oneself and primary caregivers; associated with emotions; provides basis for development of expectations in future relationships
Internal working models
(1) developed new techniques for research & therapy (free association, dream interpretation, transference, projective tests)
(2) rich observations through case studies
(3) accounts for many aspects of behavior and recognizes the complexity of behavior
(4) unconscious processes are real (even if Freud didn’t get it all right)
(5) treats individuals as as organization system
(6) holistic in nature
6 strengths of psychoanalytic theory
(1) imprecise definitions can’t be tested empirically
(2) not falsifiable (one behavior is an instinct, opposite behavior is a defense, another behavior is a compromise)
(3) neglects needs/motives other than sex and aggression (social, competence, identity/spiritual)
(4) only explains behavior, cannot predict behavior
4 weaknesses of psychoanalytic theory
focus on the phenomena of a person’s mind (perceptions + experiences) and how people view and experience themselves and the world; people are driven by self-actualization; includes conscious + unconscious, but more focus on conscious
Phenomenological approach
subjective reality, what we are aware of (experiences, thoughts, behaviors, other people)
Phenomenological field
who we believe we are now
Actual self
who we want to become
Ideal self
organized/consistent perceptions and thoughts associated with the self that are consciously accessible
Self-concept
(1) congruence between self + experience,
(2) openness to experience,
(3) lack of defensiveness
3 characteristics of healthy self-concept
stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, conformity, tradition, security, power, achievement, hedonism
Schwartz’s value circumplex
(1) openness to change vs conservation,
(2) self-enhancement vs self-transcendence
2 dimensions of Schwartz’s value circumplex
exciting life, novelty;
toward openness to change & near self-enhancement
Stimulation
creativity, freedom;
toward openness to change & near self-transcendence
Self-direction
welfare for all;
toward self-transcendence & near openness to change
Universalism
welfare of people in frequent close contact;
toward self-transcendence & near conservation
Benevolence
obedience, restraint;
toward conservation & near self-transcendence
Conformity
humility, devoutness, customs/ideas;
toward conservation & near self-transcendence
Tradition
social order in society, relationships, and self;
toward conservation & near self-enhancement
Security
authority, wealth, control/dominance;
toward self-enhancement & near conservation
Power
success, ambition, competence;
toward self-enchancement & near openness to change
Achievement
pleasure, gratification;
equally self-enhancement & openness to change
Hedonism
when how one views themself (perceived self/self-concept) and their experiences are the same (actual self)
Congruence
when the actual and perceived self are different;
causes anxiety/tension/internal confusion;
people become motivated to resolve it by changing the actual self (improving behavior) or by changing their ideal self (changing thoughts/rationale);
they may experience defensive processes (denial & distortion)
Self-experience discrepancy/incongruence
people are forward moving and so they tend to actualize, maintain, and enhance themselves to reach their full potential;
unconditional positive regard is required so individuals can explore freely and figure out their identities
Self-actualization
individuals with many/large differences between social roles (offspring, friend, student, etc.) were more likely to be anxious, depressed, and have low self-esteem
Relationship between social roles & self-concept
too much variability in self-concept can be bad or mental health because it indicates fragmentation + an integrated ‘core’ self;
some variability can be good because it allows individuals to use specialized-role identities to respond flexibly/adaptively to various role requirements
Self-concept consistency across roles
people seek to maintain their own self-structure and behave in ways that are consistent with their self-concept, even if it is unrewarding
Self-consistency
poorly adjusted individuals are more likely to deny awareness to threatening stimuli, cheat, and fail to take simple actions to make themselves feel better as these behaviors are more consistent with their self-concept; self-fulfilling prophecy
Self-consistency & psychological adjustment
people seek warmth, liking, respect, and acceptance; can be seen in infants’ needs for love + attention
Need for positive regard
if received, there is no need to deny experiences that are inconsistent with self-concept; those who receive this become well-adjusted
Unconditional positive regard
if received, then the individual will deny or distort experiences that are inconsistent with self-concept; those who receive this become poorly-adjusted
Conditional positive regard
would give child conditional positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come from how well they perform the acts that please their parent
Authoritarian influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
wouldn’t give child any positive regard or inconsistent positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come from what acts get their parents’ attention
Permissive influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
would give child unconditional positive regard;
child’s self-worth would come intrinsically
Authoritative influence on unconditional positive regard & conditions of self-worth
therapist reflects what the client says and is interested in understanding how client experiences self + world, sees client as an equal partner, and identifies conditions that interfere with psychological health + growth
Client-centered therapy
(1) unconditional positive regard (understanding and care for client)
(2) empathic understanding (be present and try to understand underlying meaning + feelings)
(3) congruence/genuineness (be real/open/transparent with feelings toward client, even if they’re negative instead of lying/masking)
3 qualities of a good therapist
developed hierarchy of needs
Maslow
BS but it’s that you need to take care of your physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem needs (in that order) before reaching self-actualization
Hierarchy of needs
Q-sort, ACL, Schwartz’s value circumplex
Ways to assess the actual + ideal self
sort a bunch of statements about the self into categories ranging from most to least characteristic in a normal distribution; can be used to measure actual or ideal self; shows person’s perceptions of parts of their phenomenal fields
Q-sort
check off a bunch of adjectives that describe oneself; can be used to compare actual and ideal self
Adjective checklist (ACL)
(1) double stimulation (feeling yourself touching and being touched),
(2) body boundary (separation from others),
(3) mirror-image self-recognition
3 sensory bases of self
(1) self-esteem (I am doing the thinking and I am being thought about),
(2) covertness (covering up inner emotions from others),
(3) identity (who you see is who you are)
3 cognitive bases of self
how to see if children & animals have self-recognition;
put dot on forehead and put mirror in front of subject; if they recognize themselves, they will look surprised at dot or try to rub it off;
only passed by 3 species (humans at least 18 mo.-2 yrs, great apes, dolphins, elephants, magpie birds)
Red-dot experiments
state in which we are concerned about our overt aspects (looks, appearance, self-presentation)
Self-awareness
trait in which we are concerned with our covert aspects (thoughts, feelings, fantasies)
Self-consciousness
I always examine my motives (private),
I am concerned about my appearance (public),
I am very aware of my feelings (private),
The last thing I do before I leave the house is look in the mirror (public)
Item examples for self-consciousness
private: introspection that leads to clarification & intensification
public: feel attention to self as a social subject, which can lead to a state of incongruence
Distinction between private and public self-awareness
when we notice a difference between inner and outer self; leads to defense mechanisms (denial & distortion)
State of incongruence
preserve self-concept by pretending experience didn’t happen
Denial
preserve self-concept by allowing the experience into awareness in a form that is consistent with self
Distortion
clarification & intensification
What are the two processes that happen during private self-awareness?
understanding self better; can lead to more validity in self-reports and attitude-behavior consistencies
Clarification
negative experiences are magnified; can lead to great sadness or greater anger turning into aggression
Intensification
lowers private self-awareness so people have less clarity on who they are and what’s important to them & feel less intense emotions
Alcohol’s effects on private-self awareness
tend to overestimate themselves and dismiss negative feedback to preserve self-consistency with high self-regard
Self-perception in narcissists
more narcissistic individuals prefer to watch themselves on video or look into a mirror for extended periods of time while less narcissistic individuals felt uncomfortable;
more narcissistic individuals’ self-evaluations go up after watching video while less narcissistic individuals’ self-evaluations temporarily went down
Differences in more and less narcissistic individuals
individuals who have higher self-esteem are more likely to self-enhance, while individuals with lower self-esteem are more likely to to self-efface
Relationship between self-enhancement bias & self-esteem
patterns of social interaction predict self-reported patterns
(ex. Americans are more biased toward reporting high self-esteem (left-skewed) while Japanese individuals had no bias (normal distribution) toward reporting self-esteem)
Nature & functioning of self-esteem/self-regard & cultural differences
self-acceptance/self-esteem, personal growth, autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive relations with others
Ryff’s 6 aspects of well-being
positive attitudes about self, acknowledge + accept good and bad qualities
Self-acceptance/self-esteem
open to new experiences, see self as growing + improving, has a sense of realizing full potential
Personal growth
self-determining, independent, resist social pressures, evaluate self by personal standards
Autonomy
have goals and sense of direction, feel like there is meaning to life (both past and present)
Purpose in life
has sense of competence in managing environment, effectively uses surrounding opportunities for personal needs/values, feels like they have control over external world
Environmental mastery
have warm/satisfying/trusting relationships, concern with welfare of others, empathy, understand give + take in relationships
Positive relations with others
(1) focuses on important aspects of human existence
(2) attempts to recognize personality holistically
(3) tries to integrate humanism & empiricism
(4) developed important approach toward therapy/counseling that is applicable to many fields
4 strengths of the phenomenological approach
(1) excludes certain phenomena (unconscious processes)
(2) lack of objective measures other than self-report
(3) isn’t fully phenomenological since observations can be biased
(4) structure of the self and need for positive regard varies by culture
(5) not much info on growth & development
5 weaknesses of the phenomenological approach
(1) unconscious processes,
(2) structure,
(3) motivational processes,
(4) goals of therapy
4 differences between Freud’s and Roger’s theories
Freud: unconscious processes are extremely important as it is the drive/basis for motivations + behavior
Rogers: not important, more focus on conscious processes
Difference in unconscious processes
Freud: based on interactions between id, ego, superego and the interactions between the unconscious, pre-conscious, and conscious
Rogers: based on similarities/differences between the self, ideal self, and experiences in the world
Difference in structure
Freud: energy model, sex + aggression, life + death, anxiety + defenses
Rogers: self-actualization, congruence, incongruence + defenses
Difference in motivational processes
Freud: use free association, dream interpretation, projective tests to tap into unconscious conflicts from childhood fixations
Rogers: use client-centered therapy where clients are equal partners and to identify conditions that interfere with psychological health and growth; therapists create a therapeutic atmosphere that has unconditional positive regard, emphatic understanding, and congruence/genuineness
Difference in goals of therapy
