Exam 2 (Cows)

Question 1

Gestation length in Cows

Answer 1

273-292d

Question 2

Hormone Changes in Prep for Parturition in Cows

Answer 2

o Relaxin and estrogens cause relaxation of pelvic ligaments -> sinking of the tail head
o Relaxin & PGE cause Cervical softening/ripening
o Vulvar edema
o Prolactin, estrogens, glucocorticoids cause udder edema

Question 3

Pathway that Starts Parturition in Cows

Answer 3

o Increase fetal cortisol ->
o Release PGF2alpha ->
o Luteolysis & relaxin causing pelvic ligament stress

ALSO

o Increase fetal cortisol ->
o Placental P4 ->
o E2 ->
o Lubrication of tract & myometrial contractions –>
o Increased pressure ->
o Cervical stimulation ->
o Oxytocin

Question 4

Stage I of Labor in Cows; Duration, Clinical Signs, What is happening, Reasons to Intervene

Answer 4

o 2-6 hours(up to 8)

Clinical signs
 Isolation from the herd
 Discomfort
 Kicking at the belly
 Restlessness (heifers)

What happens?
 Uterine contraction
 Cervical dilation
 Rupture of the chorioallantoic membrane
 “Ferguson reflex”
 Abdominal contractions

Reasons to Intervene
 No progression to stage 2 after 4 hrs
 Severe discomfort
 Vaginal bleeding
 Excessive straining, rectal prolapse, rectal bleeding
 Downer

Question 5

Stage II of Labor in Cows; Duration, What is happening, Reasons to Intervene

Answer 5

o 0.5-2 hours for cows

o 2-4 hours for heifers
o Cervix is fully dilated
o Appearance of the amniotic sac
o Many lie down
o contractions will increase and abdominal contractions are obvious.
o This stage ends with delivery of the calf

Reasons to Intervene
 If amniotic sac is seen or ruptured + the following
 No progression/no efforts for 2 hours
 Too much effort for 30 minutes and no progression
 Expulsive efforts halted for more than 20 minutes
 Signs of distress or fatigue
 rectal or vaginal bleeding
 Severe vulvar swelling
 Calf with swollen tongue, meconium staining

Question 6

Stage III of Labor in Cows

Answer 6

o Uterine contractions
o Variation in blood pressure within the placentome
o Collagenase and Neutrophils activity
o The placenta should be delivered within 6 hours
o Retained placenta if 12 hours or more

Question 7

Induction of Parturition in Cows; Indications, Prerequisites, Complications, Drugs

Answer 7

Indications
 Convenience / management (Not common in the US)
 Valuable offspring
 Embryo transfer (in vitro fertilization, cloning)
 Accident or debilitating disease in the dam
 Prolonged pregnancy (fetus gains 0.45 to 0.68 kg/days in final weeks)

Prerequisites
 Known breeding date
 Need to know if fetus alive or dead

Complications
 Retained fetal membranes

Drugs
 Dexmethasone + PGF2-alpha
 Takes 25-42hrs

Question 8

Maternal Causes of Dystocia in Cows

Answer 8

o Beef > dairy
o Inbreeding
o Muscular hypertrophy
o Uterine torsion
o Primary uterine inertia due to Hypocalcemia etc
o Secondary uterine inertia due to Exhaustion of the myometrium
o Feto-maternal disproportion (small heifers)
o Abnormalities of the birth canal
o Overconditioning
o Long gestation
o Multiparous
o Hypoclacemia
o ketosis

Question 9

Fetal Causes of Dystocia in Cows

Answer 9

o Malpositioning
o Monsters
o Oversized
o Twinning
o Male > female
o In vitro produced

Question 10

Preventing Dystocia in Cows

Answer 10

o Monitor heifer growth
o Select size bulls
o Manage nutrition
o Select for pelvimetry

Question 11

Rectal Exam for Dystocia in Cows; When? Objectives

Answer 11

Must be performed in all animals if the following
 Straining and nothing is showing at the vulva
 Only a foot is showing
 Bloody discharge

Primary objectives
 Rule in/out uterine torsion
 Verify pregnancy status and stage
 Check for abnormalities of the pelvis

Question 12

Prep for Vaginal Exam During Dystocia in Cow

Answer 12

o Clean the vulva and perineal area and any protruding fetal parts with surgical soap and water
o Scrub hands and arms
o Use ample lubrication

Caudal epidural
 1st intercoccygeal space desensitizes sacral nerves 3 - 5
 Sacrococcygeal desensitize sacral nerves 2 – 5 but often calcified in older cows
 2% lidocaine 1mL/100kg BW (no more than 5 mL)
 Desensitizes tail, vagina, vulva, perineum
 High dose: ataxia

Question 13

What to Examine During Vaginal Exam During Dystocia in Cow

Answer 13

 Examine birth canal for any lesions
 Evaluate dilation and integrity of the vulva, vestibulo-vaginal sphincter and vagina
 Evaluate cervical dilation
 Do not rupture the amniotic sac if the cervix is not fully dilated
 Determine fetal disposition (Presentation, Position and Posture)
 Determine fetal viability

Question 14

Options for Resolution of Dystocia in Cows

Answer 14

o Vaginal delivery after mutation
o Forced fetal extraction
o Fetotomy
o Cesarean section
o Pelvic symphysiotomy (not recommended)
o Euthanasia

Question 15

Uterine Torsion in Cow; Diagnosis, Clinical Signs, Treatment

Answer 15

Diagnosis
 Most torsion are to the left (counterclockwise)
 Broad ligament displacement per rectum palpation
 Spiral folds per vagina palpation

Clinical Signs
 Tachypnea/tachycardia
 Bleeding from rectum
 Failure to progress
 Raised tailhead
 Restlessness
 Straining
 Anorexia
 Death from hemorrhage

Treatment
 Lay cow on side of torsion, stabilize fetus, & flip to other side (need 3-4 times)
 C-section
 Detorsion rod if cervix open & fetus accessible

Question 16

Repulsion of a Cow Fetus

Answer 16

o “Pushing” the fetus away from the pelvis to make room for manipulations

Requirements
 Relax uterus w/ Clenbuterol or Epinephrine
 Caudal epidural
 Lubrication (pump water soluble lubricant)
 Can be done manually or use of the Kuhn’s crutch

Question 17

Rotation of Cow Fetus

Answer 17

o Turning the fetus on its longitudinal axis
o Partial to take advantage of the largest diameter of the pelvis
o Complete to bring fetus from dorsoilial or dorsopubic to dorsosacral
o Can be done manually using the fetal limbs
o Can use a detorsion rod

Question 18

Version of Cow Fetus

Answer 18

o Applied in transverse presentation
o Usually not possible in ventral transverse

Question 19

When is Vaginal Delivery Possible w/ anterior/dorsosacral presentation of calf and posterior/lumbosacral presentation of calf?

Answer 19

Anterior or dorsosacral presentation
* If 1 person can pull fetlocks 10-15cm beyond vulva
* If point of shoulders at level of ilial shafts

Posterior or lumbosacral presentation
* If hock can be exteriorized
* Must rotate fetus 45-90 degrees

Question 20

When is Vaginal Delivery Impossible During Cow Dystocia?

Answer 20

 The head has not moved spontaneously into the pelvis
 Fetus is positioned in the birth canal and the forelimbs are crossed
 Hooves are rotated with solar surfaces facing medially (i.e. elbows are forced together)
 Fetus is lodged and does not move when abdominal press occurs

Question 21

Extraction of Cow Fetus

Answer 21

o Loop chain above fetlock & Half hitch around pastern
o Maximum 2 / 3 persons (600-800 lpi) or One person per leg
o one foot at the time
o Pull in arc direction

Question 22

Fetotomy Indications & Requirements

Answer 22

Indications
 Dead fetus
 Traction is impossible
 Cesarean not an option

Requirements
 Fully dilated vulva, vagina and Cervix
 Experience
 Proper equipment

Question 23

C-Section in a Cow; Indications

Answer 23

 Elective / scheduled
 Irreducible fetal maldispositions
 Pelvic injury or abnormalities of the dam
 Uterine torsion
 Abnormal vagina: trauma, laceration, severe edema
 Salvage of term live fetus
 Should never be considered as last resort!

Question 24

C-Section in a Cow; Surgical Approaches

Answer 24

Standing
* Left paralumbar
* Right paralumbar

Dorsal recumbency
* Right & Left ventral abdominal paramedian
* Ventral abdominal median

Lateral recumbency
* Right or left supramammary (oblique)
* Right or left ventral abdominal paramedian
* Ventral right or left paralumbar

Question 25

L Flank Laparotomy C-section in Cows; Basics, Sedation, Anesthesia

Answer 25

 NOT recommended for cows that are likely to go down or extremely fractious Sedation * Ketamine 0.04mg/kgIM * Butorphanol 0.01mg/kgIM * Xylazine 0.02mg/kgIM Anesthesia * Caudal epidural (Lidocaine/Xylazine) w/ inverted “L” paralumbar block * Sedation/analgesia (Xylazine/butorphanol)

Question 26

C-Section in a Cow; Skin Incision, Basics, Approaches, Common Errors

Answer 26

 Caudal third of the fossa to facilitate exteriorization of the uterus  35 to 40 cm long Vertical * Mid-paralumbar extending ventrally * Size depends on size of the fetus Slightly oblique * 10 cm cranial and 8 to 10 cm ventral to the cranial aspect of the tuber coxae * Extend cranioventrally at 45° angle ending 3 cm caudal to the last rib Common errors * Too high * Too low * Too small * Jagged

Question 27

C-Section in a Cow; Muscles to cut, Gridding Technique & Common Problems

Answer 27

 Incise through the subcutaneous tissues & Internal and external abdominal oblique muscles  Tent the transversus abdominus muscle with forceps and incise with scissors  Use finger to check for any adhesions and direct incision with scissors Modified gridding technique * Limits the size of the incision * Difficult exteriorization of the uterus Common problems * Excessive bleeding (insure hemostasis) * Pain: Cutting through nerve branches * Inability to identify the peritoneum * Incision through to the rumen

Question 28

C-Section in a Cow; Exploration of the Peritoneal Cavity

Answer 28

 Use sterile wet sleeves  Determine the location, size and position of the fetus  Check for any uterine/cervical lacerations  Check for uterine torsion  Check tone/relaxation of the uterus

Question 29

C-Section in a Cow; Exteriorization of the Uterus, How to & Common Problems

Answer 29

 Locate the tip of the uterine horn  Grasp the leg of the fetus within the tip of the uterine horn  Bring the tip of the horn into the abdominal incision Problems * Very difficult if fetus is large or uterus is contracted (Epinephrine to relax uterus) * Never grasp the uterine horn without fetal limb! * Transverse presentations are very difficult * If you cannot bring the uterus up make blind uterine incision using a sterilized letter opener

Question 30

C-Section in a Cow; Uterine Incision & Problems

Answer 30

 Incision should be made over the greater curvature  Start at the tip of the horn and extend caudally  Stab incision and extended with scissors  Incision should be long enough to accommodate fetal limbs and head (caudal presentation) or the hips (cranial presentation)  Do not hesitate to extend uterine incision during delivery Problems * Too small incision resulting in uterine rupture or tears * Too close to the broad ligament * Too close to the body and cervix * Spillage of uterine fluid or lubricant into the abdominal cavity * Excessive hemorrhage due incision of placentomes

Question 31

C-Section in a Cow; Delivery of the Fetus in Cranial or Caudal Position

Answer 31

Cranial presentation * Apply chains to both hind legs * pull dorsal and lateral until the pelvic area is brought to the abdominal incision Caudal presentation * Apply chains to the forelegs * Locate and align the head with incision then apply traction * May need to use a head snare

Question 32

C-Section in a Cow; Uterus Closure, Problems

Answer 32

 Exteriorize as much of the uterus as possible  Hold uterus with uterine clamps  Check for lesions or abnormalities  Remove the placenta only if completely detached and comes out easily  Trim cord and placenta and replace in the abdominal cavity  Single layer Utrecht if healthy  double-layer closure Lembert then Utrecht if risk of leakage  Start at the caudal commissure  May administer oxytocin after closure  Check uterus for leakage, clean, and replace in normal position  Use a saline solution of heparin, penicillin K, or tetracycline Problems * Edges not inverting properly * Knots not buried * Uterine tears at the suture points (weak or damaged uterus) * Jagged uterine incision

Question 33

C-Section in a Cow; Abdominal Closure

Answer 33

 Abdominal lavage as indicated  Eliminate as much air from the abdomen as possible during suture****  Always start from the ventral commissure  Peritoneum, transverse and internal oblique muscles Simple continuous pattern  External oblique abdominal muscle and subcutaneous tissue in simple continuous pattern  Close skin w/ ford interlocking

Question 34

C-Section in a Cow; Complications

Answer 34

o Emphysema o Peritonitis (abdominal lavage) o Endotoxemia, postoperative sepsis o Abdominal adhesions o Retained placenta, metritis o Surgical site infections o Reduced fertility

Question 35

C-Section in a Cow; Umbilical Care

Answer 35

o Maternity pen hygiene o Reduce calf residency time in calving pens o Adequate early intake of good quality colostrum o Immediate and repeated cord dipping with chlorhexidine o “cloned” calves may need surgical resection of the umbilical stump

Question 36

Colostrum Quality in Cows

Answer 36

o Mass of IgG available for absorption should be >100 g/L o Colostrum high in red blood cells may exacerbate any diarrhea caused by gram (-) bacteria o Routine pasteurization methods reduces IgG concentrations o Heat treatment at 60°C for 30 min reduces bacterial count, preserves IgG concentration and increases the apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG

Question 37

Colostrum Absorption in Cows

Answer 37

6hrs after birth  50% 8hrs  33% After 24hrs  No absorption Failure of passive transfer  Serum IgG <10mg/mL If giving calf pasteurized colostrum, need to give all w/in 4hrs of birth

Question 38

Septic Metritis in Cows; Clinical Signs, Usual Flora, Treatment

Answer 38

Clinical Signs  2-14 days postpartum  Anorexia  Drop in milk production  Pyrexia  Tachycardia  Tachypnea  Dehydration  Large fluid filled uterus  Dark brown to red foul smelling discharge  Diarrhea  Rumen atony  Toxemia Usual Flora  Trueperella pyogenes  Fusobacterium necrophorum  Bacteroides spp.  E. coli Treatment  Penicillin, ceftiofur, ampicillin, oxytetracycline  NSAIDs  Fluid therapy  Supportive therapies

Question 39

Uterine Prolapse in Cows; Predisposing Factors, Treatment

Answer 39

o First 24 hours (maybe longer) Predisposing factors  Hypocalcaemia  Tenesmus (vaginal injury, prolonged dystocia)  Excessive extraction force  Large fetus  Calving paresis Treatment  Replacement  Hysterectomy  Slaughter salvage/ euthanasia

Question 40

Uterine Prolapse in Cows; How to Replacement

Answer 40

 Epidural ->  Standing or place in sternal position & extend legs out behind cow to allow uterus to be elevated above the perineum ->  Clean the uterus with warm water and mild antiseptic -> Massage the uterus to reduce edema (use large wet towels) ->  Replace starting at the cervix ->  Use close fists to continue to push the uterine horns through the cervix ->  Make sure that the uterine horns are extended all the way to avoid necrosis of invaginated tips by filling uterus with large volume of warm water w/ mild antiseptic ->  Administer oxytocin ->  Treat hypocalcaemia if needed ->  Place Buhner suture if cow is weak and not ambulating ->  Systemic antibiotics and NSAIDs as needed ->  If all fails – Uterine amputation

Question 41

Dairy; Age at first breeding, age at first calving, weight at 1st calving

Answer 41

Breeding  14-15mo Age at Calving  24mo Weight at Calving  1200lbs

Question 42

Annual Repro Cycle in Dairy

Answer 42

o Pregnancy - 280 days o Waiting Period – 60d o 3-4 cycles to get cow pregnant again o Days open - 85-110d

Question 43

Dairy; Average Days Open

Answer 43

o Number of days from calving to date of insemination resulting in confirmed pregnancy o 100 –110 days o most commonly used parameter to evaluate reproductive efficiency o does not include cows culled for reproductive problem and does not reflect the distribution o There should be less than 10% of the cows open after 150d

Question 44

Dairy; Heat Detection Efficiency & Heat Intervals

Answer 44

Heat Detection Efficiency o % Cows pregnant at the first pregnancy diagnosis o Should ~ 80-85% Heat Intervals o < 18days - error, cystic ovarian condition, PGF2α administration o 18 to 24 days - normal o > 24days – missed heats, early embryonic death

Question 45

Dairy; Breeding Efficiency Indices, calculate preg rate

Answer 45

o Aim for 1.5-2 services per conception o Heifers 65-70% conception rate o Lactating cows 30-55% conception rate o Pregnancy rate = Heat detection rate (HD) x Conception Rate (CR)

Question 46

Dairy; Who & What to Regularly Examine Post Calving

Answer 46

First 10 days  Cows that had dystocia  Abnormal discharge after calving  Retained placenta 15 to 45 days:  Uterine involution  abnormalities (metritis, pyometra, cysts)  Ovarian activity

Question 47

Dairy; Pregnancy Diagnosis

Answer 47

First pregnancy diagnosis  28 days by transrectal ultrasonography  28-30 days PSPB  32-35 days by transrectal palpation First confirmation:  70-80 days of pregnancy Second confirmation:  at dry off

Question 48

Freemartinism; Basics, Diagnosis

Answer 48

o 92% of females born co-twin w/ male o Due to Anti-Müllerian hormone o Normal or hairy external genitalia o Short vagina, underdeveloped uterus, hypoplastic ovaries Diagnosis  Transrectal palpation in adults  Test vaginal depth in claves <30d old  PCR to detect Y antigen

Question 49

White Heifer Dz

Answer 49

o Recessive sex-linked gene w/ white hair coat o Segmental aplasia of the paramesonephric ducts & cervix o Normal ovaries o Persistent hymen (Shorthorn cattle) o Mucometra

Question 50

Postpartum Dzs

Answer 50

o Calving associated injuries and accidents (few hours after calving) o Retained placenta (few hours) o Toxic mastitis (1- 3 wks) o Postpartum metritis and delayed uterine involution (1-few weeks) o Metabolic diseases (1-60 days) o Cystic ovarian disease (first 60 days) o Anestrus

Question 51

Dairy; Transition Period

Answer 51

o 3 weeks before to 3 weeks after parturition o Rapid fetal growth o Colostrogenesis o Initiation of lactation o High demand in energy, glucose, amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients o Negative energy balance

Question 52

Dairy; Pathophysiology of Dz During Transition Period

Answer 52

Lipid mobilization  Increased serum level of Non-Esterified Fatty Acids (NEFAs)  Increased ketone bodies, Acetone, acetoacetate, and ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)  Decreased immunity  Leucopenia  Decreased INFγ and IgM synthesis  Reduced phagocytosis Increased concentrate in the ration  Ruminal acidosis  Inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins  Increased risk for metritis, laminitis, mastitis, displaced abomasum

Question 53

Dairy; Uterine Involution

Answer 53

o 2 week postpartum: No fluid o 2-3 weeks: Uterus is retractable o 3 Weeks: Size reduced by 80% o 40 days: Complete involution o Delayed if underlying dz

Question 54

Retained Placenta; What, Pathogenesis, Treatment

Answer 54

o >12 hours postpartum o failure of detachment (primary) or failure of expulsion (secondary) Pathogenesis  decreased collagenolytic activity  due to presence of anticollagenase & reduced collagenase due to hypoclacemia  deficit in neutrophil phagocytic activity Treatment  NO manual removal or PGF2-alpha  Oxytocin for failure of expulsion  Antibiotics if septic  Injection of collagenase into umbilical arteries

Question 55

Uterine Infection; Effect on Repro, Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, Fever

Answer 55

Effect on Repro  Increase Days open by 15 days Diagnosis  Palpation  degenerative left shift in septic metritis Treatment  penicillin/ceftiofur  fluid therapy  NSAID  oxytocin (20 to 40 IU every 2 to 6 hours),  PGF2α (pyometra) Prevention  Nutrition (body condition, Prepartum ration, DCAD)  Calving management/care  Postpartum (Fresh) cow monitoring program  Temp daily for the first 10 days post-partum Fever * ≥ 103°F (Cows) * ≥ 102.5°F (Heifers)

Question 56

Dairy; Postpartum (Fresh) Cow Program If cow has fever

Answer 56

Looks Sick  Oxytocin  Flunixin meglumin or aspirin  IV dextrose, oral propylene glycol  Oral calcium or 250 ml Ca Gluconate IV  Penicillin, Ceftiofur (if metritis) Looks Healthy  Day 1: Same as sick cows (NO ANTIBIOTICS)  Day 2: Same as sick cows, if temperature persists  Day 2: if normal temperature, recheck the following day

Question 57

Dairy; Postpartum (Fresh) Cow Program If cow does not have fever

Answer 57

Looks Sick  IV dextrose, oral propylene glycol  Glucose promoters (corticosteroids)  Oral calcium or 250 ml Ca Gluconate IV  Check for DA  Add antibiotics if fever develops Looks Healthy  Continue to monitor temp

Question 58

Cystic Ovarian Dz; Basic, Causes, Treatment

Answer 58

o > 25 mm for more than 10 days in absence of a corpus luteum o Results in nymphomania, anestrus, rarely normal cycles Causes  Adrenal hyperfunction  Postpartum diseases  High production (> 3rd parity)  Genetics  High selenium levels Treatment  GnRH or hCG  Follow w/ PGF2-alpha  Spontaneous recovery possible

Question 59

Dairy; Anestrus; False Vs True, Causes

Answer 59

False  Pregnancy  Heat detection problems True  Small inactive ovaries  Persistent luteal function  Persistent corpus luteum  Pyometra Causes of ovarian inactivity  Poor growth/parasitism  Trace mineral deficiencies  Negative energy balance (mature cows)  Association w/ Hypocalcemia, ketosis, retained placenta, displaced abomasum

Question 60

Dairy; Estrus Signs

Answer 60

o Lasts 15-18 hrs o Allows mounting o Mucous discharge o Reddening and swelling of the vulva o Increased activity o Chin resting o Lip curling o Drop in milk production

Question 61

Dairy; Herd w/ Inefficient Estrus Detection

Answer 61

o Very few heats observed before service o Prolonged calving to 1st service interval (should be less than 18 days beyond VWP) o Interestus interval > 30 d, or multiple of 21 o More than 15% of cows open at the first pregnancy diagnosis o Cows are cyclic (vet. Examination) o Less than 50% of eligible cows are observed in estrus

Question 62

Dairy; Reasons for Poor Conception Rate

Answer 62

 Uterine disease (endometritis)  Failure of ovulation  Change in body condition  Heat stress: effects on oocyte quality  Timing of insemination  Semen quality  Semen handling  Insemination technique

Question 63

Dairy; Effects of Heat Stress on Fertility

Answer 63

o Temp > 26C or 78-79F o Decrease oocyte & embryo quality o Increased granulosa cells degeneration o decreased steroidogenesis o Decreased progesterone o Effect can last over several cycles

Question 64

Dairy; Iatrogenic Causes of Abortion

Answer 64

o PGF2-alpha first 150 days of pregnancy o Dexamethasone + PGF 2 alpha last trimester

Question 65

Dairy; Factors that Contribute to Pregnancy loss

Answer 65

Abortion = loss between 42-260 days o Genetics o Heifers > 26mo o Older & multiparous o Heat stress o High milk production o Timing of insemination o Metabolic dz o Mastitis o Lameness

Question 66

Brucellosis; Transmission, Clinical Signs, DIagnosis, Prevention

Answer 66

Transmission  Oral  venereal  Hematogenous  Mammary gland,  lymph nodes  gravid uterus Clinical Signs & Lesions  Abortion in 2nd half of pregnancy  Severe placentitis  Autolyzed fetus Diagnosis  FA  Culture of abomasal fluid, lung, placenta, milk, uterine fluid  Paired serum samples 1:100 Prevention  Test  Vx

Question 67

Leptospirosis; Clinical Signs, Diagnosis

Answer 67

Clinical Signs  Abortions during last trimester  Abortion following 7-10 day illness  Fever  Anemia  Hemoglobinuria  Icterus  Agalactia  Mastitis  Death  Autolyzed fetus Diagnosis  Culture of urine, placenta, feces  FAT  Dark field microscopy  Paired serum samples of herd 1:800  Paired serum samples on cow 1:40  PCR on fetal kidney

Question 68

Listeriosis; Clinical Signs in Cow, Clinical Signs in Fetus, Diagnosis

Answer 68

Clinical Signs in Cow  Abortion in last trimester  Rare fever  Anorexia  Encephalitis  Retained placenta  suppurative placentitis  Necrosis of cotyledon Clinical Signs in Fetus  Autolysis  Fibrinous pericarditis  Focal liver necrosis  Suppurative hepatitis Diagnosis  Culture & histo of placenta  IHC of abomasal contents, vaginal discharge, tissues

Question 69

Mycotic Abortion; Agents, Time of Year, Clinical SIgns, Diagnosis

Answer 69

Agent  Aspergillus  Mucor  Rhizopus Time  Sporadic abortions  After wet summer w/ moldy hay Clinical Signs  Placentitis w/ thickened placenta  white erythematous or ringworm like lesions Diagnosis  Hyphae from placenta or fetus on histo

Question 70

Neosporosis; Pathogenesis, Clinical Signs, Diagnosis

Answer 70

Pathogenesis  Ingestion of oocysts and development of tachyzoites in placenta and amniotic fluid ->  Vertical transmission to heifers ->  Bradyzoites develop in central nervous system Clinical Signs  Resorption and mummification of fetus possible  Abortion between 4 and 7 months of pregnancy  Placentitis  Autolyzed fetus w/ no gross lesions  Foci of cellular infiltrate in the brain, Non-suppurative epicarditis, myocarditis, myositis, Portal hepatitis on histo Diagnosis  IFA of fetal fluid  Parasite ID w/ IHC or PCR

Question 71

BVD; Different Symptoms at Different Times in Pregnancy

Answer 71

Days 0-42  Infertility or early embryonic death Days 18-125  persistently infected calves  Abortion  Mummification Defects after 100 days  Cerebellar hypoplasia  Retina dysplasia  Intrauterine growth retardation  Mandibular bradygnathism  Hydrancephaly  Hypomyelinogenesis  Partial alopecia Days 125-170  Abortion possible  Fetal abnormalities  Calves born with congenital defects have precolostral serum virus-neutralizing titers to BVDV Days 170+  No abortion  birth of normal appearing calves with pre-colostral antibodies

Question 72

BVD; Diagnosis, Control

Answer 72

Diagnosis  Aborted fetus submitted for viral isolation  ID of PI calves w/ IHC, PCR, or ELISA Control  Vx

Question 73

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis; Agents, Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, Control

Answer 73

Agents  Bovine Herpes  1.1 & 1.2a cause abortion & resp symptoms  1.2b causes genital lesions Clinical Signs  Fever  Respiratory signs  Infertility  Infectious Pustular vulvoginitis (IPV)  Infectious balanoposthitis (IBP)  Abortion storms last half of gestation after respiratory problems  Abortion 20-52 days post infection  Focal hepatic necrosis of fetus  Placentitis Diagnosis  Viral isolation from fetal tissue via FA or IHC Control  Vx

Question 74

Types of Fetal Membrane Hydrops

Answer 74

o Cow looks severely bloated o Hydrallantois o Hydramnios

Question 75

Fetal Mummification; Clinical Signs, Treatment

Answer 75

Clinical Signs  Overdue fetus  Found as mass or bony structure on transrectal palpation Treatment  PGF2-alpha?  Surgical removal

Question 76

Fetal Maceration; What, Clinical Signs

Answer 76

Death of fetus contaminates uterus and cow fails to expell  Persistent abnormal vaginal discharge  Infertility

Question 77

Beef Production Efficiency; Definition, Components

Answer 77

o number of pounds/kg of marketable beef produced per year per cow Components  Pregnancy rates  Calving rates  Weaning rate (calf losses)  Weaning weight

Question 78

Beef Heifers; Age at first calving, Age at conception, Distribution of calving for heifers, Breeding season Length

Answer 78

Age at first calving  24 months Age at conception  13-15 months (65% of estimated mature weight) Distribution of calving for heifers  90% of heifers should conceive in the first cycle Breeding season  42 days

Question 79

Beef Cows; Calving Interval, Distribution of calving , Breeding season Length

Answer 79

Caving interval  12 months  Must conceive by 100 days postpartum Breeding season length  63 days Distribution of calving for cows  65-70% should conceive in the first cycle  Pregnancy rate: >95%  Pregnancy loss rate <5%  Calving rate >85%  Calf loss <2%

Question 80

Beef; Winter Vs Spring Vs Fall Calving

Answer 80

Winter  Calves are older at time of sale  Older, bigger breeding bulls for sale  No mud at calving time  risk of cold exposure to neonates  Increased cost of feeding  More problems with postpartum anestrus  Market prices for commercial calves may be low Spring  Good weather conditions * Low cost of nutrition * Early resumption of cyclicity * Calves sold before winter * Calving area muddy * Breeding occurs during the hottest period of the year * Market prices for commercial calves low Fall * Good weather conditions * Cows calve in excellent body condition * Early resumption of cyclicity * Breeding occurs before hot season * Calves sold at high prices * Increased feeding cost for cows and claves during winter * Breeding occurs during the shorter days of the year * Calf weights may low in early spring

Question 81

Effects of Repro Tract Scoring on Repro Career in Beef Cows

Answer 81

o Heifers with RTS 1 or 2 o more likely to be in anestrus for first 24 days of breeding season o Take longer to get pregnant o Have lower overall pregnancy rate o Have a shorter productive career

Question 82

Reasons for Poor Pregnancy Rate & Long Calving Period in Beef Cows

Answer 82

Postpartum anestrus  Effect of suckling (lactation anestrus) -> Low frequency of LH secretion  Need at least 45 to 50 days to resume cyclicity (longer if first calf heifer) Relationship between BCS at calving and resumption of cyclicity  Loss of BCS in the postpartum period increases length of anestrus  Partial/temporary weaning (48 hours) may help Nutritional deficiencies  Copper, Selenium, Zinc, Vit.  increased risk for long anestrus and early pregnancy loss

Question 83

Trichomoniasis; Agent, Pathophysiology, Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, Prevention

Answer 83

Agent  Tritrichomonas foetus Pathophysiology  Protozoa colonizes the epithelium of the prepuce and penis (mucosal surface)  No symptoms in bulls Clinical Signs  Cervicitis  Endometritis  Pyometra  Salpingitis  Early pregnancy loss (<3 months) 7 to 9 weeks after infection  Abortion usually < 5 months (less common)  Infection cleared in 6-18wks but transmitted to bulls in meantime Diagnosis  Culture of preputial scraping, Pyometra fluid, or fetal Abomasal content to ID parasite by PCR or microscopic exam  IHC placenta and fetal tissue Prevention  Purchase virgin bulls and test all bulls  Vx helps some but not as much as above

Question 84

Campylobacteriosis; Agent, Pathophysiology, Prevention

Answer 84

Agent  Campylobacter fetus Pathophysiology  Confined to the epithelial surface of the glans penis, prepuce and urethra  Asymptomatic in bulls (Chronic carrier) Prevention  VX heifers 2x 3-4wks apart 30d before breeding  Vx bulls 2x (double dose) 4wks apart then booster before breeding

Question 85

Campylobacteriosis; Clinical Signs in Cows & Fetus, Diagnosis

Answer 85

Clinical Signs in Cows  Endometritis  Salpingitis  Infertility, irregular estrus cycles**  Early embryonic death  Placentitis  Abortion (rarer) Clinical Signs in Fetus  Bronchopneumonia  Pleuritis, peritonitis  Hepatitis Diagnosis  Culture and PCR of Placenta, Cervical mucus, Preputial wash in bulls  Clark’s medium important for culture

Question 86

Pine Needle Abortion; Toxin, Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, Treatment

Answer 86

Toxin  Isocupressic acid  1kg of needles per day for several wks Clinical Signs  Early pregnancies are not affected  Vulvar edema and mucoid bloody vaginal discharge in mid to late term  Premature delivery, stillbirths, or abortion  Weak uterine contractions  Dystocia  Failure of cervical dilation  Birth of weak calves Diagnosis  tetrahydroagathic acid in fetal thoracic fluid and stomach content Treatment  activated charcoal,  Na thiosulfate

Question 87

Foothill Abortion (Epizootic Bovine Abortion); Etiology, Clinical Signs, Fetal Lesions, Diagnosis, Prevention

Answer 87

Etiology  CA, NV, OR  Tick vector Clinical Signs  Transplacental intracellular infection between 60 and 140 days  2 to 3 months progression Fetal Lesions  Not autolyzed  Ascites  excessive fibrin  hepatomegaly & splenomegaly  petechial hemorrhages  skin lesions  enlarged lymph nodes  focal necrotizing lesions  depletion of cortical thymocytes and macrophage infiltration in the thymus Diagnosis  Fetal lesions  PCR on fetal tissues Prevention  Reduce exposure of naïve cattle during the breeding season  Expose naïve cattle prior to breeding season (natural immunity last 2 to 3 years)

Question 88

Vaginal Prolapse; Factors, Treatment, Post-treatment

Answer 88

Factors  Genetics (Hereford or Charolais)  Age / multiple pregnancies  Intra-abdominal pressure in late pregnancy  Excess perivaginal fat  Prior perivaginal injury  Intake of large volumes of poorly digestible roughage  Poor vaginal conformation  Estrogenic influence on relaxation of the perineal area  Incompetence of the constrictor vestibule and vulvar muscles  Hypocalcemia Treatment  Caudal epidural anesthesia  Disinfection of the tissue and perineal area  Evaluation of the tissue for lesions  Replacement  Buhner technique closure Post-treatment Care  +/- antimicrobials  anti-inflammatories  Long term epidural  Monitor calving

Question 89

Vaginal Prolapse; Grade

Answer 89

Grade I * Intermittent prolapse of the vaginal mucosa when recumbent Grade II * Continuous prolapse of the vaginal mucosa with possible entrapment of the urinary bladder Grade III: * Protrusion of the entire vagina and cervix with entrapment of the bladder * may lead to placentitis Grade IV * Chronic complete eversion with severe tissue necrosis of the vaginal mucosa * can become complicated with peritonitis

Question 90

Arthrogryposis multiplex (curly calf); What is it, Prevention

Answer 90

o Lethal autosomal recessive genetic defect o Angus breed o Permanent contracture of the forelimbs and hind limbs o Abnormal curvature of the spine o Very small and lack muscle development o Cleft palate o Calves are generally stillborn, or die shortly after birth Prevention  Must test all bulls  Male carriers can’t be registered

Question 91

Lupine toxicosis (Crooked calf syndrome); Toxin, Pathogenesis, Clinical Signs, Prevention

Answer 91

Toxin  Lupine Pathogenesis  Ingestion between 40-100d gestation  Desensitation of skeletal muscle nicotinic acethylcholine receptors  Reduced fetal movement Clinical Signs  Arthrogryposis  Scoliosis  Kyphosis  Cleft palate  Muscle atrophy Prevention  Management of grazing during the susceptible period  Changing calving season

Question 92

Breeding Soundness Exam of Bulls

Answer 92

Ranked as satisfactory, deferred, or unsatisfactory Physical examination Reproductive evaluation  Scrotal/testicular palpation  Minimum scrotal circumference  transrectal palpation Semen collection and evaluation  Normal erection and ejaculation  Minimum sperm motility (need 70% normal sperm)  Sperm morphology Testing for venereal diseases is NOT part of the regular BSE but should be encouraged.

Question 93

Young bulls & Breeding Soundness

Answer 93

o Disqualified due to poor sperm morphology or small scrotal circumference o If pass, allowed to breed 15-25 cows (younger breed less)

Question 94

Persistent Frenulum; Basics & Treatment

Answer 94

o Persistence of the preputial-penile adhesions o Suspected to be hereditary o Bulls cannot achieve full erection and exteriorization of the penis o Treated bulls should be used as terminal sires (should not use to produce males due to hereditary) Treatment  Snip & suture

Question 95

Fibropapilloma; Basics, Treatment, Prevention

Answer 95

o “Penile warts” o Bovine fibropapilloma virus o Usually, young bulls mounting each other Treatment  Surgical excision  Easy if small and pediculated  Complicated if large, wide- based  Treated Bulls should be reexamined 30 days later prior to use for breeding for regrowth Prevention  Autologous vaccine made from removed warts

Question 96

Preputial Lacerations; How, Grade, Treatment

Answer 96

o Discrepancy in size between cow and bull o Breeds w/ pendulous prepuce o Polled breeds (absence of retractor preputial muscle) Grade  I – preputial prolapse, slight/moderate edema  II – moderate/severe edema, slight necrosis  III – severe edema, deep laceration, moderate necrosis, fibrosis  IV – severe edema, deep lacerations, deep necrosis, fibrosis, and often abscess Treatment  Medical management (I & maybe II)  Circumcision - Closure of preputial epithelium, preputial skin and placement of penrose tube over the free portion of the penis  Preputial amputation

Question 97

Penile Hematoma (Broken Penis); Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Complications

Answer 97

Pathogenesis  Breeding injury  Rupture of the tunica albuginea  Extravasation of blood from the corpus cavernosum penis  Dorsum of the penis on the distal bend of the sigmoid flexure Diagnosis  site of lesion  ultrasonography Complications  Preputial prolapse  Adhesions  Abscess

Question 98

Penile Hematoma (Broken Penis); Treatment

Answer 98

Conservative * Must be less than 20cm * Broad spectrum antibiotics * Hydrotherapy * Sexual rest for 60d at least * 60-70% of bulls return to breeding without surgery Surgery * Best 5 to 7 days after accident * Removal of the blood clot and repair of the rent * Sexual rest: 60-90 days * 75% of bulls recover and return to breeding if surgery is performed w/in first week

Question 99

Spiral Deviation of the Penis; When is it normal/abnormal

Answer 99

o Normal inside vagina at time of ejaculation o Normal during electroejaculation o ABNORMAL if seen during erection before entering vagina

Question 100

Vesicular Adenitis (seminal vesiculitis); Basics, Agents, Risk Factors

Answer 100

o Most common accessory sex glands disorders in bulls o Young > older o Primarily hematogenous Agents  Brucella abortus,  Trueperella pyogenes,  Histophilus somni,  IBR,  enterovirus Risk factors:  Age  high energy ration, acidosis  other infections

Question 101

Vesicular Adenitis (seminal vesiculitis); Clinical Signs

Answer 101

Acute * Enlarged gland * Painful on palpation * Lameness +/- * Abdominal pain Chronic * Adhesions, * abscess, * fistulation tract draining in rectum

Question 102

Vesicular Adenitis (seminal vesiculitis); Effect on Ejaculate, Treatment

Answer 102

Effect on Ejaculate  Presence of pus or blood  Sedimentation  Presence of neutrophils in semen (1 per 3 high power x1000 fields)  Poor motility due to inflammatory cytokines  Increased detached heads Treatment  Spontaneous recovery possible in young bulls < 2 years  Older bulls have poor prognosis for recovery  Tulathromycin  Tilmicosin  Cull if > 9year

Question 103

Look at Bull slides for pictures of Testicular Asymmetry

Answer 103

o Testicular atrophy o Seminoma o Inguinal hernia

Question 104

GnRH & Analogues; What is it, Function, Indications

Answer 104

o Neuropeptide produced in Hypothalamus Function:  Stimulates FSH and LH release Indications  Induction of ovulation  Induction of follicular growth

Question 105

Progesterone; What is it, Function, Indications, Available Forms

Answer 105

o Steroid produced by Corpus luteum Function  Inhibit LH surge  Maintenance of pregnancy Indications  Synchronization of follicular waves Available forms  Progesterone  Megestrol acetate

Question 106

PGF2-alpha & Analogues; What is it, Indications, Available Forms

Answer 106

o derivative of arachidonic acid producd by Endometrium Indication  Luteolysis Available forms  Natural: Dinoprost tromethamine  Synthetic: Cloprostenol

Question 107

Methods to Improve Heat/Estrus Detection

Answer 107

PGF2α and analogues  1 injection + heat detection and AI  2 injections 11 to 14 days apart: Heat detection and AI Controlled Internal Drug Releasing Device (CIDR)  Insertion for 7 days ->  1 day prior to removal administer PGF2α ->  heat detection and AI

Question 108

PGF2α or analogues for bypassing estrus (heat) detection; Method, Physiology

Answer 108

Method  2 injections of PGF2α 11-14 days apart ->  AI at 80 hours or 72 and 96 hours after the second injection Physiology  Injection of PGF2alpha during luteal phase ->  regression of CL ->  estrus in 2-5d

Question 109

Ovsynch for bypassing estrus (heat) detection; Methods

Answer 109

Basic Method  Day 0: GnRH – induce ovulation or induce luteinization  Day 7: PGF2α – lyses CL or luteinized follicle  Day 9: GnRH – induce ovulation of mature follicles  AI 8 to 16 hours after second GnRH Presynch-Ovsynch Method  give PGF2alpha 14 & 10 days prior to day 0 Double Ovsynch Method  GnRH 17 days prior ->  PGF2 14 days prior ->  GnRH 7 days prior to day 0

Question 110

CIDR + Ovsynch for bypassing estrus (heat) detection; Method

Answer 110

 Day 0: CIDR placement + GnRH  Day 7: CIDR removal + PGF2α  Day 9: GnRH  12 hours later: AI