Exam 1 (Small Animal)

Question 1

Proestrogen Assay; Progesetrone Levels & Cycle Stages

Answer 1

 LH surge 1.5-2.0 ng/mL
 Ovulation = 4-10 ng/mL
 Fertilization period = 12-16 ng/mL
 Cervix close = 20

Question 2

Cell Types Present on Vaginal Cytology

Answer 2

 Anuclear – no nucleus
 Superficial – very dark cell w/ tiny nucleus
 Intermediate – nucleated cell w/ some pointy edges
 Parabasal – round w/ large nucleus
 Neutrophils
 RBCs

Question 3

Guidlines for Timing Insemination in Bitch

Answer 3

o Evaluate bitch 4-5 day after the beginning of proestrus ->
o Vaginal cytology reaches 60% of cornification (anuclear cells) ->
o blood drawn for progesterone assay every 3-5 days until LH surge or ovulation
o Fresh/chilled semen - inseminate 2 days and 4 days post-ovulation
o Frozen thawed semen - inseminate 3 to 5 days post-ovulation

Question 4

Insemination w/ Chilled Vs Frozen Semen

Answer 4

Chilled Semen
o Collecting and shipping semen over weekends and holidays can be problematic
o Pregnancy rates with intravaginal insemination range from 60 to 95%

Frozen Semen
o Intrauterine insemination required
o Thawed spermatozoa capable of fertilization for only 24 hours
o Transcervical insemination vs surgical insemination

Question 5

Semen Evaluation

Answer 5

o Evaluate total number of sperm, Motility, & Morphology
o need 200 million sperm

First fraction
 0.5 to 7+ mL
 clear fluid

Second fraction
 sperm rich
 0.5 to 2 mL
 white opaque fluid

Third fraction
 primarily prostatic
 5 to 30 mL
 clear fluid

Question 6

Causes of Infertility in the bitch

Answer 6

o Failure to have an estrous cycle
o Prolonged inter-estrus interval
o Short inter-estrus interval
o Prolonged proestrus/estrus
o Failure to conceive/early reabsorption
o Failure to breed

Question 7

Primary Vs Secondary Anestrus

Answer 7

Primary Anestrus
 Congenital ovarian aplasia
 Congenital disorder sex development
 Silent heat
 Inadequate estrus detection
 Can induce estrus

Secondary Anestrus
 Hormones: Progestogens Mibolerone
 Luteal cysts
 Hypothyroidism
 Cushing’s

Question 8

How to induce estrus in dogs

Answer 8

Dopamine agonist (prolactin antagonist)
o Cabergoline or Bromocriptine
o needs to be given for a long time
o can cause vomiting & coat color change

Question 9

Reasons for Prolonged inter-estrus interval (>10 months), Short inter-estrus interval (<4 months), Prolonged/persistent proestrus or estrus

Answer 9

Prolonged inter-estrus interval (>10 months)
o Basenji & basenji hybrids more prone
o Can be due to ovarian neoplasia, underlying illness or ovarian cysts

Short inter-estrus interval (<4 months)
o Normal follicular development + failure to progress to ovulation
o Heat comes back in 1-10wks
o 2nd cycle usually fertile

Prolonged/persistent proestrus or estrus
o Follicular cysts
o Granulosa theca cell tumor
o Exogenous estrogens

Question 10

Pregnancy Failure due to Early Resorption; Most common cause & other causes

Answer 10

Most common cause
 Uterine infections due to normal female flora mycoplasma in the vagina and uterus.
 Pasteurella multocida, Beta hemolytic streptococci, E. Coli and mycoplasma
 Brucella canis only bacteria proven to cause infertility

Other
 Hypoluteoidism
 Reproductive tract occlusion
 Systemic illness

Question 11

Neutering/Spaying Pros & Cons

Answer 11

o Decrease chance of cranial cruciate rupture in large breeds by waiting until 2yo
o Decrease mammary tumors & prostatic hyperplasia when done earlier

Question 12

Results of Ovary Sparing Hysterectomy

Answer 12

o Routine estrous cycles
o Enlarged vulva with no vaginal bleeding
o Estrous behaviors
o Presumably at a greater risk for developing mammary tumor

Question 13

Steroid Hormones for Contraception

Answer 13

Estrogens:
 Especially diethylstilbestrol
 Not recommended due to Bone marrow suppression and aplastic anemia

Progestins:
 Megestrol acetate,
 medroxyprogesterone acetate,
 proligestone

Question 14

Megestrol Acetate; Basics & Side Effects

Answer 14

o Antiandrogenic and antiestrogenic effects but also cortisol agonist
o Prevents follicular development and LH surge:
o Return to estrus variable
o litter size normal after treatment

Side effects
 Weight gain, lethargy, restlessness, and mammary development.
 Contraindicated w/ history of mammary neoplasia, diabetes mellitus, liver, or uterine diseases
 can cause masculinization of female fetuses

Question 15

Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Contraceptive; Basics & Side Effects

Answer 15

o Used only in anestrus
o Minimum doses 2mg/kg IM every 3-4 months
o Return to estrus variable

Side effects
 The most androgenic and immunosuppressive
 Not FDA approved

Question 16

Androgens For Contraception

Answer 16

In male dogs:
 Alter spermatogenesis by suppressing LH
 stimulate libido and prostatic growth

female dogs:
 Mibolerone used for fertility control for periods up to 5 years.
 Can cause clitoral hypertrophy, vaginal discharge, vaginitis, and male-type behavior

cats:
 Not approved for use in cats but mibolerone and other androgens can be effective in preventing reproduction

Question 17

GnRH Agonists as Contraceptive

Answer 17

Deslorelin
 Male dog contraceptive
 Not available in US

Nafarelin
 Female dog & cat contraceptive
 Not available in US

Question 18

Immunocontraceptive

Answer 18

o Vaccine developed for wildlife
o Short life span
o None for dogs or cats

Question 19

Gene Silencing

Answer 19

o Identify a gene w/in the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-gonadal axis that is required for fertility
o Choose a method that can selectively silence the gene of interest with minimal off-target effects
o Devise a minimally invasive method of silencing
o Utilizing a delivery vehicle that allows this silencing effect to be maintained for the life span of the animal
o Not currently available

Question 20

Estrogens for Pregnancy Termination; Drugs, Side Effects

Answer 20

Drugs
 Estrodial benzoate
 Estrodial cypionate (administer in estrus/diestrus)
 Tamoxifen citrate (compounded with estrogen activity)

Side Effects
 Bone marrow suppression and aplastic anemia
 Leucopenia and thrombocytopenia
 Endometritis, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, and or pyometra.
 Not approved for pregnancy termination

Question 21

Prostaglandins for Pregnancy Termination; How do they work, Side Effects

Answer 21

o PGF2α lyses CL -> contraction of uterus
o Progesterone must be < 2mg/ml for at least 48 hrs to terminate pregnancy
o Monitor w/ ultrasound and serum progesterone throughout treatment

Side Effects
 Prior to 35-40 days after breeding - resorption with few clinical signs
 After 40 days - overt vaginal discharge and abortions
 vomiting, diarrhea and depression
 Cloprostenol fewer side effects than Dinoprost.

Question 22

Prolactin Inhibitors for Pregnancy Termination; How do they work, When do you give them, Drugs, Side Effects

Answer 22

o Dopamine agonist -> Decrease Prolactin secretion from pituitary gland -> luteolysis.
o Only from 35 days in gestation

Drugs
 Bromocriptine
 Cabergoline

Side effects
 Bromocriptine is unstable when crushed and must be protected from light and heat.
 Vomiting, anorexia
 Side effects can be minimized with chlorpromazine or PGF2a

Question 23

Aglepristone for Pregnancy Termination; How does it work, Side Effects

Answer 23

o Synthetic steroid w/ antiprogestin property
o Competes w/ uterine progesterone-receptors with 3 times stronger affinity than progesterone in the dog and 9 times stronger affinity in the cat.
o VERY effective

Side Effects
 Can induce a localized inflammatory response.
 Divide large doses no more than 5 ml per site and massage the sites after injection
 No FDA Approved in USA. Only Europe and Australia

Question 24

Trisomy (XXY)

Answer 24

 Males w/ hypoplastic testes, epididymides & vas differentia.
 External genitalia vary from normal to hypoplastic.
 Complete male phenotype is explained by the presence of testes capable of producing MIS
 Presence of two “X” chromosome prevents normal spermatogenesis
 Calico males

Question 25

o Monosomy (XO)

Answer 25

 Normal or small stature
 Externally female phenotype
 Infantile female internal genitalia
 Gonadal dysgenesis (streak gonads)

Question 26

Chimerism; XX/XY w/ testes

Answer 26

• Ambiguous genitalia: Cranially displaced vulva, enlarged clitoris or small prepuce
• Dysuria and urine scalding may be present
• Hypoplastic penis
• Hypoplastic abdominal testis
• Hypoplastic uterus

Question 27

Chimerism; XX/XY w/ freemartinism

Answer 27

• Female born co-twin to a male
• Common in cattle
• Ovaries of the freemartin do not develop normally and remain very small.
• External vulvar region can range from normal looking female to a male-like appearance

Question 28

Sex Reversal

Answer 28

 The gonadal sex does not agree with the chromosomal sex
 XX true hermaphrodites (ovotestes)
 XX males (bilateral testes)
 Inherited as an autosomal recessive trait in American Cocker Spaniel & German shorthaired pointer
 degree of masculinization depends on the degree of gonadal function
 related to polled trait in goats

Question 29

Female Pseudohermaphroditism

Answer 29

 XX karyotype w/ ovaries
 masculinized internal or external genitalia
 Results from in utero androgen exposure

Question 30

Male Pseudohermaphroditism

Answer 30

 XY karyotype, testes but the internal and/or external genitalia present variable degrees of feminization
 Failure of regression of Müllerian ducts or defects in androgen dependent masculinization

Question 31

Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome; what is it? treatment

Answer 31

 autosomal recessive trait in the miniature schnauzer
 XY w/ cryptorchid testicles, uterus, oviducts, cervix and cranial vagina

Treatment
* Castration and removal Mullerian ducts

Question 32

Cryptorchidism

Answer 32

 Associated with XX DSD
 Considered cryptorchid if testes are not descended by 6mo

Question 33

Hypospadia

Answer 33

 In males
 abnormal location of the urinary orifice
 occurs when there is incomplete masculinization of the urogenital sinus (closure of the urethra)
 May have a familial basis in Boston terriers

Question 34

When does parturition Occur in Relation to Hormones

Answer 34

o 64-66 d after LH surge
o 63 days after ovulation
o 57 days after cytological diestrus

Question 35

Other Methods for Diagnosing Pregnancy in Dogs

Answer 35

Abdominal palpation
 21-30 days post LH surge

Prolactin
 35+ days post LH surge
 More difficult than relaxin

Question 36

Methods for Diagnosing Pregnancy in Cats

Answer 36

Ultrasound
 17-30 days gestation

Prolactin
 20+ days post breeding
 More difficult than relaxin

Abdominal palpation
 21-25 days post breeding

Relaxin blood test
 25+ days post breeding

X-ray
 38-40 days gestation

Question 37

Ultrasound for Determining Pregnancy in Dogs

Answer 37

 17-30 days gestation
o Assessment of fetal viability
o determine number of fetuses
o Gestational aging
o Heartbeat visualized 23-25 d post-LH surge
o Fetal movement visualized 34-36 d post-LH surge

Question 38

X-rays for Determining Pregnancy in Dogs

Answer 38

 42-45 days gestation
o Fetal skeletal calcification of the spine and skull begins 42-46 days post-LH surge
o Fetal teeth radiopaque at 58-63 days post-LH surge
o Staging advanced pregnancies

Question 39

Relaxin for Determining Pregnancy in Dogs

Answer 39

 25-40 days post LH surge
o Hormone produced primarily by the canine placenta
o Serum levels rise 20-30 days
o In-house assay
o (-) results in early gestation -> repeat testing 7-10 days later

Question 40

Blood Indicators that Rise During Pregnancy but are Not Used for Diagnosis

Answer 40

o Estrogen
o Fibrinogen
o C-reactive protein

Question 41

Fetal Heartrate

Answer 41

o 2-3 times the mother
o > 190 bpm - Normal
o < 190 bpm - Stress
o large breed <180 - fine
o small breed <180 - distressed
o <160 bpm – emergency C-section
o 20 days from parturition starts to decrease

Question 42

Development of Fetus

Answer 42

20-30d
 Heart rate
 Jaw mineralization

30-40d
 Ribs
 Thoracic, lumbar, & cervical spine
 Head

40-50d
 Kidneys
 Lungs
 Liver

50-60d
 Stomach
 Bladder
 Gallbladder
 GI

Question 43

Gestational Aging w/ Ultrasound

Answer 43

Inner chorionic cavity & crown rump length
 21-37d

Biparietal Diameter & body diameter
 >37d ( biparietal most accurate in large breeds)

Question 44

Gestational Aging w/ X-ray

Answer 44

Spherical Swelling
 Dog – 31-38d

Ovoid Swelling
 Dog – 38-44d

Spine Mineralization
 Dog – 45d

Teeth
 Dog – 61d

Question 45

Are the puppies ready to be delivered?

Answer 45

o If you can see the dark and light of the separation of the cortex & medulla on ultrasound
o Intestinal motility

Question 46

How Much Weight Should a Female Gain During Pregnancy

Answer 46

o 15-25% of body weight increase
o Last 3-4wks
o Mostly last week

Question 47

Consequences of Inadequate Nutrition

Answer 47

Ketosis
 inadequate nutrition or not enough carbs

Eclampsia:
 Toy-small breeds
 due to calcium supplementation during gestation
 Ataxia, muscular tetany and convulsive seizures.

Cleft palate:
 folic acid deficiency

Gestational diabetes mellitus:
 Due to inadequate endogenous insulin supply.

Poor milk quality and puppies’ growth

Question 48

Nutrition During Lactation

Answer 48

o 1-1.5 maintenance in 1st week
o 2x maintenance in 2nd week
o 2.5-3x maintenance in 3rd & 4th week

Question 49

Parturition Initiation & General Rules About Gestation Length

Answer 49

o Small litters = prolonged gestation
o Large size litters: may shorter gestation
o Older bitches prolonged gestation (0.11 days per year of age)

Parturition Initiation
 Fetal adrenal glands produce cortisol ->
 12-24hrs later prolactin increases ->
 Progesterone declines ->
 Relaxin produced by fetuses ->
 relaxation of pelvic ligaments and vaginal tissue ->
 parturition

Question 50

Stage 1 of Labor

Answer 50

o estradiol and prostaglandin ->
o myometrial contractions ->
o oxytocin ->
o More myometrial contractions
o Panting, nervous, restless, nesting, vomiting
o 4 to 12 hours

Question 51

Stage 2 of Labor & Abnormalities to watch for

Answer 51

o Abdominal straining
o Green or clear fetal fluids expelled
o Amniotic sac may be visible
o First puppy delivered within 4 hours
o Once fetus visible at pelvic canal it should be delivered w/in 20 minutes
o Litter fully delivered within 12 hours

Abnormalities
 Most common in stage 2
 Large amount of bright red or dark red/brown fluid
 Labor should not be allowed to continue beyond 24 hours

Question 52

Stage 3 of Labor

Answer 52

o Pass placenta
o Shortening of uterus
o Rest period of 1-2hrs

Question 53

Phases of Uterine Involution

Answer 53

1st week postpartum:
 uterine horns dilated and edematous
 Placental sites prominent and covered with mucous/blood clots

Up to 8wks postpartum
 Normal lochia (dark red to brown)

9 weeks podtpartum:
 uterine horns uniform in shape and contracted with a narrow lumen
 Trophoblast-like cells not observed at the placental sites
 Regeneration and replacement of the endometrial lining is not complete

12-16wks postpartum
 Uterine involution complete

Question 54

Reasons for Vet Evaluation During Parturition

Answer 54

o Prolonged gestation for >65d from ovulation or >72d from breeding
o No signs of labor 24-36 h after temp. drop
o More than 4 h between rupture fetal membranes and delivery of 1st puppy
o Active uterine contractions >30 min without expulsion of fetus
o More than 2 hours between births
o Abnormal vaginal discharge
o Bitch has delivered stillborn puppies
o Bitch has been in 2nd stage labor for more than 12 hours.

Question 55

Uterine Inertia; Basics & Causes

Answer 55

o Most common reason for dystocia
o Inability of the uterus to contract
o Usually need C-section

Causes
 Sepsis
 Illness
 Age-related
 Genetic inability of the myometrium to contract
 Primary inertia when there are only few fetuses

Question 56

Complete Primary Vs Partial Primary Vs Secondary Inertia

Answer 56

Complete Primary
 Normal birth canal
 No fetuses delivered
 Uterine dysfunction

Partial Primary
 Normal birth canal
 Some fetuses born
 Uterus becomes fatigued

Secondary
 Uterus is exhausted due to obstruction to passage of fetus

Question 57

Dystocia; Signalment, Symptoms

Answer 57

Signalment for Dystocia
o Primiparous bitches < 2 yo
o Toy and small brachycephalic breeds
o Very large or very small litters (SUPERFECUNDATION – many males)
o Not as common in cats

Symptoms of dystocia
o Vocalization
o Biting/chewing at vulvar region
o Abnormal vulvar discharge
o Fetus protruding from vulva
o fever, weakness, tremors

Question 58

Treating Hypocalcemia and Hypoglycemia during Parturition

Answer 58

o Ca Gluconate 10%
o 50-150 mg/kg IV over 10-15 mins

Question 59

Using Oxytocin During Parturition

Answer 59

o Can be given to further along labor
o Must treat hypoglycemia and calcemia first
o Don’t use during dystocia
o Only 3 doses before C-section

Question 60

Meds During C-section

Answer 60

o Pre-med: Fentanyl
o Induction: Propofol
o Epidural: Morphine & lidocaine
o Sevoflurane inhaled
o Intra-op: Fentanyl
o Post-op: methadone or opioid

Question 61

Meds to Prepare Dog for C-section

Answer 61

Corticosteroid (betamethasone)
 2-12 h before
 Starting at day 57 to stimulate surfactant

PGF2a
 induce luteolysis and increase prolactin

Intranasal oxytocin
 When waking from Sx to accept the puppies

Question 62

Vaginitis; Basics, Clinical Signs, Treatment

Answer 62

o Mostly dogs
o Usually bacterial infection, secondary to conformational abnormalities
o Also caused by Viral infection (canine herpesvirus), foreign bodies, neoplasia, hyperplasia, androgenic steroids, intersex conditions

Clinical signs
 Vulvar discharge
 Licking of the vulva
 Attraction of males
 Frequent micturition
 NO systemic illness
 Normal hemogram and biochemical profile

Treatment
 Give probiotics first
 Give antibiotics as last resort

Question 63

Brucella canis; Epidemiology, Clinical Signs

Answer 63

o Gram (-)
o Intracellular
o Zoonotic & reportable
o Transmitted horizontally & through placenta/milk
o VERY important to test for during breeding soundness exam

Clinical Signs
 Fever uncommon
 Subfertility,
 early embryonic death
 abortion
 teratozoospermia
 orchitis
 prostatitis
 Discospondylitis
 Lymphadenomegaly
 lameness

Question 64

Brucella canis; Signs in Puppies, Signs in Male dogs, Treatment

Answer 64

Puppies
 may die shortly after birth
 may seem healthy, but are infected
 Shed B. canis for several months
 Can become clinically affected after puberty

Specific Signs in Male Dogs
 Licking of the scrotum
 Scrotal edema
 Scrotal asymmetry
 Abscess formation and necrosis of testicles
 Sperm agglutination 3-4 months post infection

Treatment
 NONE
 Should euthanize or quarantine

Question 65

Canine Herpesvirus 1; Symptoms, Diagnosis, Control

Answer 65

Symptoms
 Symptoms worse in young dogs
 Respiratory signs
 Low litter size
 Embryo resorption-infertility
 Abortion (2-3 weeks after exposure)
 Neonatal death (3-4 weeks old)
 Stillbirth
 Genital lesions
 Multifocal hemorrhage of all organs on necropsy

Diagnosis
 Intranuclear inclusion body liver spleen kidney
 Necrotic areas of the placenta.
 Paired titer serology
 Virus isolation
 PCR
 Do two test to confirm

Control
 Prevent stress
 Reduce contact w/ novel dogs
 Vaccine available outside of US

Question 66

Pyometra; Cause, Symptoms, Clin Path, Signalment

Answer 66

Cause
 Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia
 Exogenous estrogen therapy
 Progesterone therapy

Symptoms
 Vaginal discharge
 Decreased appetite
 PU/PD
 Vomiting
 Ds
 Nocturia
 Abdominal enlargement
 Sepsis

Clin Path
 Neutrophilia w/ left shift and toxic neutrophils
 Mild normocytic, normochromic anemia
 Azotemia
 elevated protein and globulins
 elevated ALT, ALP
 electrolyte disturbances
 degenerative polymorphonuclear cells & bacteria on cytology

Signalment
 Intact bitches
 8-9 years old
 Nulliparous
 5 or 80 days after the end of estrus

Question 67

Pyometra; Treatment

Answer 67

Medical
* Only if not systemically ill & <6YO
* Antibiotics for 4-6wks
* Prostaglandin (Dinoprost or cloprostenol) BETTER
* Dopamine agonist (Cabergoline, Bromocriptine, Luteolyze)

Surgical
* OHE
* Antibiotics

Question 68

Cryptorchidism; Basics

Answer 68

o Testes does not descend into the scrotum by 6 months of age
o Prevalence 1-11%
o Unilateral > bilateral
o The testis can be retained in prescrotal subcutaneous area, inguinal area, or the abdomen
o Heritable
o More common in smaller breeds & smaller dogs of litter

Question 69

Cryptorchidism; Consequences, Diagnosis, Treatment

Answer 69

Consequences
 abnormal thermoregulation -> neoplasms such as Sertoli cell tumors and seminomas -> Associated with feminization syndrome.
 spermatic cord torsion
 decreased / abnormal spermatogenesis

Diagnosis
 Palpation
 Ultrasonography
 AMH to differentiate castrated versus bilateral cryptorchid dogs

Treatment
 Castration
 Laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy
 NO orchipexy, GnRH, physical pulling

Question 70

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Clinical SIgns Consequences

Answer 70

Clinical Signs
 Often asymptomatic
 Tenesmus/Constipation
 Sanguineous prostatic fluid dripping from the prepuce
 Hematospermia
 Hematuria
 Dysuria

Consequences
 Prostatitis
 Prostatic abscess
 Prostatic neoplasia

Question 71

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Treatment

Answer 71

Finasteride
* 5-alpha reductase 2 inhibitor
* T2 is not inhibited
* libido and spermatogenesis continues

Osaterone acetate
* T2 analog
* Decreases T2
* Decrease libido & spermatogenesis

Question 72

Acute Prostatitis; Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, Treatment

Answer 72

Clinical Signs
* Pain
* depression, anorexia
* vomiting
* fever
* stiff gait
* Prostate painful on palpation
* neutrophilia w/ left shift and toxic change
* Mild to severe urinary tract infection

Diagnosis
* diffuse enlargement of the prostate on ultrasound

Treatment
* Finasteride to decrease prostate size during initial treatment
* castration after infection is eliminated.
* Antibiotics (enrofloxacin) 4-6wks
* Once inflammation subsides the prostate-blood barrier will return and antibiotics must then be chosen with that in mind.

Question 73

Chronic Prostatitis; Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, Treatment

Answer 73

Clinical Signs
* Asymptomatic / subclinical
* persistent penile discharge
* dysuria, hematuria
* fever
* anorexia
* abdominal pain
* rear limb lameness, stiff gait, and back pain
* prostate may be normal size, shape, and consistency & non-painful

Diagnosis
* Single organism on culture of prostatic fluid
* FNA
* Mineralization of prostate on rads
* mixed echogenicity of the prostate on ultrasound

Treatment
* Antibiotics (ENRO, Erythromycin, chloramphenicol) 4-6wks
* Consider castration
* Finasteride

Question 74

Azoospermia; Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

Answer 74

Causes
 Hypothalamus or pituitary issues
 Cryptorchidism
 Delayed puberty
 Chemotherapy or radiation
 Anabolic steroids administration
 Toxin exposure
 Obstruction

Diagnosis
o ALP levels in ejaculate
o <2500 IU/L absence of sperm
o 2500 – 5000 IU/L equivocal
o >5000 IU/L confirmation of ejaculation

Treatment
o Phenylpropanolamine
o increases urethral pressure and reduces the number of sperm voided into the bladder during ejaculation