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PSYC Research & Statistics I > Exam 2 (Chapters 4-6) > Flashcards

Exam 2 (Chapters 4-6) Flashcards

1
Q

A sample chosen such that individuals are chosen with the specific probability

A

Probability sample

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2
Q

A sample chosen such that the probability of an individual being chosen cannot be determined

A

Convenience or purposive sample

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3
Q

A sample chosen randomly from the population such that each individual has an equal chance of being selected

A

Simple random sample

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4
Q

A sample chosen randomly from clusters identified in the population

A

Cluster sample

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5
Q

A sample chosen from the population such that the proportion of individuals with a particular characteristic is equivalent in the population and sample

A

Stratified random sample

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6
Q

A sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen based on who volunteers to participate

A

Volunteer sample

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7
Q

A sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen with equivalent proportions of individuals for a specific characteristic in the population and sample

A

Quota sample

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8
Q

The spread of scores in a distribution

A

Variability

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9
Q

The distribution of all possible sample means for all possible samples of a particular size from a population

A

Distribution of sample means

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10
Q

A sample chosen from the population by recruiting on the Internet

A

Internet sample

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11
Q

What is the advantage to simple random sample?

A

It reduces sampling error by choosing from all members of the population to best represent the population

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12
Q

What are some disadvantages to simple random sample

A

It is difficult to ensure that each member of a large population can be chosen in a sample

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13
Q

Students are chosen randomly from a list of all students at a University

This is an example of what sample technique

A

Simple random sample

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14
Q

What are the advantages of a cluster sample

A

It makes it easier to choose members randomly from small clusters to better represent the population

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15
Q

What are the disadvantages to cluster sampling

A

It can ignore segments of the population that are not in the clusters chosen for the sample

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16
Q

Doctors who work at hospitals are chosen for example by identifying all hospitals in different areas of the United States and then randomly choosing 10 hospitals in each area of the United States to sample from

This is an example of what type of sampling technique

A

Cluster sample

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17
Q

What are the advantages to stratified random sampling

A

It reduces bias due to an Identified characteristic of the population by equating proportions in the sample and the population for that characteristic to better represent the population

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18
Q

What are some of the disadvantages to stratified random sampling

A

It is similar to simple random sampling which can be difficult to ensure equal probability of being chosen from a large population

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19
Q

Registered voters are randomly selected from lists of democrats and republicans to equal the proportion of registered democrats and republicans in the United States

Is an example of which sampling technique

A

Stratified random sampling

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20
Q

What are some of the advantages to convenience sampling

A

It is easier to obtain than probability samples

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21
Q

What are the disadvantages to convenience sampling

A

It may not represent the population properly due to selection bias because random sampling is not used

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22
Q

The sample is chosen from students who volunteer to complete an extra credit assignment in their psychology course

This is an example of what sampling technique

A

Convenience sampling

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23
Q

Convenient samples can also be known as which type of samples

A

Volunteer sample or quota sample

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24
Q

True or False

The larger the difference between scores in the sample data, the less reliable it is as an estimate of the population data

A

True

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25
Q

true or false

Data from one sample will not tell us everything we need to know about the research questions we are asking with our study because, by chance, we may not have collected data from our sample that does a good job of representing the population data.

A

True

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26
Q

What are 2 things that you need to keep in mind when trying to recruit participants

A

How you will contact your participants and their compensation

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27
Q

For each of the following study descriptions, describe how you would select a sample from the population using one of the techniques describe in this chapter:

A. You want to know how adults in your country feel about the issue of immigration.
B. You want to know how anxious college seniors are about their job prospects.
C. You want to learn about how people remember information based on their mood.

A

A. Since a simple random sample would be too difficult to take, I would try to take a cluster sample. It would be important to get people from across the country to weigh in. That is, people in urban and rural settings, or maybe more to the point, people living in areas with a high number of immigrants and people living in areas with a low number of immigrants.

B. You could conduct a simple random sample of seniors at your university or college or you could do this for a number of universities/colleges of different types

C. Again, a simple random sample of “people” is too broad, even if it’s narrowed to adults in this country. A type of convenience sample, like a volunteer sample, might not be a bad idea. You’re probably looking for a lot of people and not too worried about demographics.

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28
Q

The distribution of a sample means shows ______.

A. The frequency of scores in a sample
B. The frequency of means from all samples from a population
C. The sampling error that exists in a sample
D. The sampling error that exists in a population

A

B. The frequency of means from all samples from a population

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29
Q

True or false

Sampling error will only be present in convenience samples, not in probability samples.

A

False

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30
Q

Our measure of sampling errors affected by _________.

A. Sample size
B. Population size
C. Variability in the data
D. Both A and B
E. Both A and C

A

E.

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31
Q

Probability plays a role in ______.

A. Selecting a representative sample
B. Estimating sampling error
C. Determining the mean of our sample
D. All of the above

A

A

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32
Q

True or false

A probability sample typically has less sampling error than a convenient sample.

A

True

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33
Q

In a simple random sample, _______.

A. Is sample matches the proportions in the population on some characteristic
B. Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected
C. Individuals are selected at random from preexisting groups in the population

A

B

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34
Q

In what ways are probability samples preferable to convenience samples

A

Probability samples are typically better representatives of the population they are drawn from because the probability of an individual being chosen is determined ahead of time and controlled through random sampling.

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35
Q

Despite the superiority of probability samples, why do many psychological studies use convenience samples?

A

Many studies use convenience samples because it can be difficult to identify all the members of large populations to randomly select them.

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36
Q

Suppose you were conducting a survey study to learn about drinking behaviors for the population of students at your school with a quota sample. In your sample you want to be sure that you represent the population according to year in school and gender. Describe how you might choose your sample for this study and how your survey would be administered.

A

There are several ways to do this, but the key is to use a convenience sample of students at the school in the same proportions as they exist at the school as a population based on years in school and gender. These proportions will need to be known before the sample is selected. You will also need a recruitment technique (Internet with e-mail contact, surveys mailed to campus address, etc.) to describe how to administer your survey.

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37
Q

What are some advantages of collecting samples by using the Internet?

A

Internet samples tend to be more diverse than other samples; they can be collected using fewer resources and in a shorter period of time.

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38
Q

In a _______ sample, individuals are chosen at random from the population but are chosen in proportions equivalent to proportions that exist in the population.

Example 90% right handed, 10% left handed

A. Simple random
B. Haphazard
C. Quota
D. Stratified random

A

D

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39
Q

In a ______ sample, individuals who volunteer from the population or chosen for the sample

A. Simple random
B. Convenience
C. Quota
D. Stratified random

A

B

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40
Q

Sampling error is _______.

A. A type of sampling technique
B. The difference and observations between the population and the sample
C. Is an error introduced into a study by the researchers bias
D. None of the above

A

B

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41
Q

The ______ is the group of individuals a researcher wants to learn about, whereas a ______ is the group of individuals who serves as subjects in a study

A

Population; Sample

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42
Q

In a ______ sample, all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected

A

Simple random

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43
Q

The difference in scores that occurs when we test a sample drawn out of the population is ______.

A. sampling error
B. Stratified Error
C. Cluster Error
D. Independent Error

A

A. Sampling error

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44
Q

The sampling technique that involves choosing individuals from the population at random where each individual has an equal chance of being selected is ______.

A. simple random sample
B. Quota sample
C. volunteer sample
stratified random sample

A

A. Simple random sample

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45
Q

A quota sample example might be described as ______.

Choose one

people who respond to a mailed survey make up the sample

all students who sign up for a study make up the sample

60% of the population is left-handed, so 60% of the participants chosen are also left-handed

participants are selected from a local preschool class to represent preschoolers who live in the area

A

C. 60% of the population is left-handed, so 60% of the participants chosen are also left-handed

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46
Q

Individuals are selected at random for a study from a list of members of Girl Scout troops to represent the population of girls aged 8–13. This sampling is ______ sampling.

Choose one

simple random

stratified random

haphazard/volunteer

cluster

A

D. Cluster

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47
Q

Convenience samples will likely increase the amount of sampling error in the study, lowering its ______ validity by making a test of the hypotheses less accurate.

Choose one

external

sample

haphazard

internal

A

D. Internal

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48
Q

Convenience samples are also called ______.

Choose one

volunteer samples

haphazard samples

cluster samples

purposive samples

A

D. Purposive samples

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49
Q

Experiments that require ______ of stimuli can be reproduced for presentation on the Internet to individual participants.

Choose one

systematic presentation

double-blind protocol

repeated measures

random presentation

A

A. Systemic presentation

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50
Q

In a simple random sample, if a population has 100 individuals, the chance of any one individual being selected for the sample is ______.

Choose one

1 in 100

50 in 100

4 in 100

10 in 100

A

A. 1 in 100

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51
Q

It is important to use a ______ sample when sampling error is likely to be large.

Choose one

convenience

haphazard

volunteer

probability

A

D. Probability

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52
Q

______ require access in some way to the entire population to select individuals according to a predetermined probability value.

Choose one

Convenience samples

Haphazard samples

Volunteer samples

Probability samples

A

D. Probability samples

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53
Q

Concepts of probability are also used to collect data from a sample to learn about a population. This knowledge can be used to conduct research on behavior and test hypothesis using the data collected

A

Collecting data using probability

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54
Q

Any possible result of an experiment, action, or event

A

Outcome

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55
Q

We can determine the probability of any result in our data by doing what

A

Considering the total number of possible outcomes and calculating the proportion of those outcomes that correspond with our result of interest

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56
Q

What does it mean when we consider the likelihood of obtaining the sample mean we got for our sample, given what we know about the population we want to learn about

A

Finding a sample mean

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57
Q

What is the application of sampling to research studies

A

To test hypothesis for research studies, researchers must find the probability of a behavior of interest, occurring in the sample

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58
Q

What restrictions are imposed when using nominal or ordinal scale of measurement

A

The response choices on those scales will determine the possible measurement outcomes from an individual

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59
Q

What restrictions Are imposed when using interval scale As the scale of measurement

A

Rating scales typically restrict the responses to whole numbers between 2 values, making the possible outcomes one of those values.

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60
Q

What restrictions are imposed by using the ratio scale of measurement

A

Constrained by a range at the bottom end but can be broken down into smaller and smaller increments, often a large number of possible outcomes.

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61
Q

What is the dartboard analogy

A

You can consider the entire dartword the population of interest, each location represents a score from someone in that population, the individuals in the sample are the darts

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62
Q

The difference between the population means score and the means score of your sample

A

Is sampling error

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63
Q

To reduce sampling error as much as possible, we must use a good sampling technique to choose the individuals from the population of our sample. This means we are ______ _______.

A

Reducing error

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64
Q

What are the 2 steps that are very important to getting a sample

A
  1. Select individuals from the population for the sample
  2. Observe the behaviors you are interested in from the individuals in the sample
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65
Q

Researchers attempt to balance the desire to reduce sampling error and select a representative sample within the practical limits of selecting individuals from very large populations. This balance plays out in the choice between _______ and _______

A

Probability samples
Convenience/Purposive samples

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66
Q

What are the advantages of probability samples

A

Probability samples are more likely to be representative of the population

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67
Q

What are the different types of probability samples

A
  1. Simple random sample
  2. Stratified random sample
  3. Cluster sample
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68
Q

What are the advantages to convenience or purposive sample

A

Much easier to select and are often used in cases where researchers want to learn about a very large population

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69
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to simple random sample

A

Reduces sampling error but it is difficult to ensure that each member of a large population can be chosen in a sample

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70
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to cluster sample

A

Easier to choose members randomly from smaller clusters but other segments are ignored completely

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71
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to stratified random sample

A

Reduces bias due to an identified characteristic but it can be difficult to ensure equal probability of being chosen from a large population

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72
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to convenience sampling

A
  1. Ease: Instead of randomly sampling individuals from the population convenient samples rely on samples that are convenient to obtain such as from a University subject pool or from users of the Amazon website MTurk
  2. Low internal validity: Can sacrifice some internal validity due to an increase in sampling error
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73
Q

How do you choose a valid sample

A

A sample size should be big enough to reduce sampling error but small enough for the researcher to test the sample in his or her study. A valid sample will reduce the error in the data and give a better estimate of the actual population average

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74
Q

What is the concept of variability

A

The spread of scores in a distribution

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75
Q

What affects the estimation of your sample error?

A

Use both the sample size and the sample variability

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76
Q

The distribution of all possible sample means for all possible samples of a particular size from a population is called the….

A

Distribution of sample means

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77
Q

What are the advantages of using the Internet to recruit participants as a sample

A

Demographically diverse, fewer opportunities for bias, and fewer constraints

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78
Q

What are the disadvantages to using the Internet to sample

A

It’s difficult to control participants

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79
Q

The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study

A

External validity

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80
Q

The degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior

A

Internal validity

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81
Q

A data collection technique involving non invasive observation of individuals in their natural environment

A

Naturalistic observation

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82
Q

A measure of the degree to which different observers rate behaviors in similar ways

A

Interobserver or interrator reliability

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83
Q

A research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behavior

A

Survey research

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84
Q

Participants responses to survey questions according to the response options provided by the researcher

A

Closed ended response scale

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85
Q

This participants respond to survey questions in any manner they feel appropriate for the question

A

Open ended response scale

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86
Q

Non numerical participant responses

A

qualitative

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87
Q

Numerical data is

A

Is quantitative

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88
Q

A data collection technique that involves direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes

A

Interviews

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89
Q

Data collection technique where control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed

A

Systemic observation

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90
Q

Data collection technique that involves analysis of pre existing data

A

Archival data

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91
Q

An archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual spoken or written record

A

Content analysis

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92
Q

A research design that involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors.

A

Case study

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93
Q

An experiment conducted with one or a few participants to better understand the behavior of those individuals

A

Small-n design

94
Q

A type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables without manipulating any of the variables

A

Correlation study

95
Q

The dependent variable in a correlation study that is used to predict the score on another variable

A

Predictor variable

96
Q

The dependent variable in a correlation study that is being predicted by the predictor variable

A

Outcome variable

97
Q

Relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with an increase in the other variable

A

Positive relationship

98
Q

Relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable

A

Negative relationship

99
Q

A graph showing the relationship between 2 dependent variables for a group of individuals

A

Scatter plot

100
Q

The presence of extraneous factors in a study that affects the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity of the study

A

3rd variable problem

101
Q

A type of research design that involves manipulation of an independent variable, Allowing control of extrenuous variables that could affect the results

A

Experiment

102
Q

A variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher such that the levels of the variable change across or within subjects in the experiment

A

Independent variable

103
Q

Different situations or conditions that participants experience in an experiment because of the manipulation of the independent variable

A

Levels of the independent variable

104
Q

The group of participants in an experiment that experienced the treatment level of the independent variable

A

Experimental group

105
Q

The group of participants in an experiment that do not experience the treatment level of the independent variable

A

Control group

106
Q

An extra factor present in a study that may affect the results

A

Confounding variable

107
Q

A sugar pill given to the control group and a drug study to allow all groups to believe that they are receiving treatment

A

Placebo

108
Q

A type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

A

Quasi-experiment

109
Q

Participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous variable. This process is called..

A

Random assignment

110
Q

Quasi experiment where subjects are grouped based on a characteristic they already possess (age or gender)

A

Ex post facto design

111
Q

A type of experiment design (often a quasi experiment) where behavior is measured both Before & After a treatment or condition is implemented

A

Pretest-post test design

112
Q

Suppose you are interested in testing the following hypothesis: “ The Herb ginkgo biloba causes one to have better memory.”

A. What is the best research design to test this hypothesis? Why?
B. Describe the study you would conduct to test this hypothesis.

A

A. This is a causal hypothesis; thus, an experiment is the best design.
B. A manipulated independent variable that includes random assignment of participants to a ginkgo biloba group and a control group that receives a placebo should be included. Memory should be measured as the dependent variable.

113
Q

_________ Validity indicates that a study’s results can be generalized to other individuals and real life situations

A

External

114
Q

__________ Validity indicates that a study’s results provide casual information about the variables tested

A

Internal

115
Q

For each of the following descriptions indicate which data collection technique was used:

Medical records of patients with depression are examined to determine how often these patients attempt suicide based on what type of treatment they received.

A

archival data

116
Q

For each of the following descriptions indicate which data collection technique was used:

Participants are asked to perform a task on a computer where they must unscramble sentences as quickly as possible the amount of time it takes to complete the task on each trial is recorded

A

systematic observation

117
Q

For each of the following descriptions indicate which data collection technique was used

A series of statements regarding their alcohol consumption behaviors is presented to participants- they are asked to rate their agreement with each statement on a scale from 1 to 5

A

survey/questionnaire

118
Q

For each of the following descriptions indicate which data collection technique was used

Students in a college class are observed to record the numbers of times they exhibit behaviors indicating lack of attention to the lecture

A

naturalistic observation

119
Q

If a study finds that as self esteem goes up, symptoms of depression decrease, the study has found a _________ relationship

A

Negative

120
Q

_____________ Research designs are typically used when a researcher wants to explore the behavior of an individual or group of individuals to better understand unusual or atypical behaviors

A

Case study

121
Q

A researcher wants to study factors that cause people to become anxious. She randomly assigns groups of students to 1 of 2 conditions: 1. Performing a timed task with a clock running on the screen while they perform the task or 2. Performing an untimed task while someone watches them complete the task. She compares the accuracy on the task for the two groups. The study used _____________ research design.

A. Case study
B. Correlation
C. Experimental
D. Quasi-experiment

A

C. Experiment

122
Q

An instructor of a statistics course is interested in the relationship between how long it takes students to take an exam and their exam score. He times the students on their exam while they take it on a computer and then looks at the relationship between time for the exam and the exams scores for the students. This study used a ___________ research design.

A. Case study
B. Correlation
C. Experimental
D. Quasi-experiment

A

B. Correlation

123
Q

You arrive at a study you signed up to participate in. The researchers asked you to write down the time you spent asleep the night before. Then they ask you to perform a task categorizing items into living and non living categories. At the end of the study you are told that the purpose of this study was to see if people who slept 7 hours or more the night before perform the task faster than people who slept less than 7 hours. This study used a ______________ research design.

A. Case study
B. Correlational
C. Experimental
D. Quasi-experiment

A

D. Quasi-experiment

124
Q

The calculated average of the scores in a distribution

A

Mean

125
Q

The middle score in a distribution, Such that half of the scores are above 1/2 are below that value

A

Median

126
Q

The most common score in a distribution

A

Mode

127
Q

Representation of a typical score in a distribution

A

Central tendency

128
Q

Measurement of the length of time to complete a task

A

Reaction time

129
Q

A measure representing the average difference between the scores and the mean of a distribution

A

Standard deviation

130
Q

The standard deviation of a distribution squared

A

Variance

131
Q

The number of scores that can vary in the calculation of a statistics

A

Degrees of freedom

132
Q

Measures with responses as categories that cannot be divided into smaller units

A

Categorical variables

133
Q

Graphs of data for categorical variables where the bar height represents the size of the value (mean)

A

Bar graphs

134
Q

Measures with numbers scores that can be divided into smaller units

A

Continuous variables

135
Q

Graphs of data for continuous variables where each value is graffed as a point and the points are connected to show differences between scores (means)

A

Line graphs

136
Q

Ranges of values that the population mean likely falls in with a specific level of certainty

A

Confidence intervals

137
Q

A graph showing the relationship between 2 dependent variables for a group of individuals

A

Scatterplot

138
Q

Calculate the mean medium and mode. Which measure of central tendency would you choose as the most representative of the dataset? why?

1, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 7

A

Mean: 4, Median: 4, Mode: 4

Each measure of central tendency is the same, so they are all equally representative.

139
Q

For the following data set calculate the mean, median, and mode. Which measure of central tendency would you choose as the most representative of the dataset? why?

1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 7

A

Mean: 2, Median: 1, Mode: 1

The mean is most representative. A median might normally be good for a set of scores skewed to one end, but in this case the most common score is the lowest possible score. The mean provides a bit more balance, since the range runs from 1-7.

140
Q

For the following data set calculate the mean median and mode. Which measure of central tendency would you choose as the most representative of the dataset? why?

1, 2, 3, 2, 2, 5, 7, 7, 7, 2, 7, 2, 7, 7, 2

A

Mean: 4.2, Median: 3, Mode: 2, 7

The mean, because it balances a set of scores heavy on the low and high ends.

141
Q

How do the mean, median, and mode compare for symmetrical and skewed distributions?

A
  1. The mean is best when the distribution is symmetrical.
  2. The median is better when one or two outliers skew the distribution.
  3. The mode is good when there are many scores at the high end and low end.
142
Q

Which measures of central tendency is most commonly reported?

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. None of the above

A

A. Mean

143
Q

Which measure of central tendency is most affected by extreme scores?

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. None of the above

A

A. Mean

144
Q

Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate to report for skewed distribution?

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. None of the above

A

B. Median

145
Q

Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate for nominal data?

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. None of the above

A

C. Mode

146
Q

Which measure of central tendency will provide the middle score in a symmetrical distribution?

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. None of the above

A

D. None of the above

147
Q

The purpose of reporting a measure of central tendency is to indicate the spread of the scores in a distribution

True or false

A

False

148
Q

The mean of a distribution is a descriptive statistics

True or false

A

True

149
Q

In a positively skewed distribution the mean will be lower than the median.

True or false

A

False

150
Q

The mean is the best measure of central tendency to report when there are open ended responses on the measurement scale

True or false

A

False

151
Q

For each of the following data sets, which appears to have the highest variability? Explain your answer. And what is the standard deviation for each?

A. 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 2, 3
B. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 7
C. 4, 2, 3, 2, 3, 5, 7, 7, 7, 4, 7, 2, 7, 7, 3

A
  1. data set C has the highest variability.
    A. SD: .75
    B. SD: 2.07
    C. SD: 2.13
152
Q

Which measure of variability is most commonly reported?

A. Standard Deviation
B. Variance

A

A. Standard Deviation

153
Q

Degrees of freedom are used in calculating the standard deviation for population.

True or false

A

False

154
Q

The variability of scores for a sample will be lower than the variability in the population it represents.

True or false

A

True

155
Q

Explain why we need to square the deviations from the mean in our calculation of the standard deviation.

A

If we did not square the deviations from the mean, the sum of the deviations would be zero. We need a value to work with.

156
Q

Where should you place tables and figures of data in an APA style research report?

A. Embedded within the results section
B. On a separate page at the beginning of the paper
C. On a separate page at the end of the paper
D. Embedded within the introduction

A

C. On a separate page at the end of the paper.

157
Q

Which graph is most appropriate for data with categorical variables?

A. Bar graph
B. Line graph
C. Both A and B

A

A. Bar graph

158
Q

Which graph is most appropriate for data with continuous variables?

A. Bar graph
B. Line graph
C. Both A and B

A

B. Line graph

159
Q

Whenever you present data in a graph, you should always also include the exact values from the graph in a table.

True or false

A

False

160
Q

Creating graphs in SPSS usually requires calculation of descriptive statistics before you begin.

True or false

A

False

161
Q

Inferential statistics are typically presented in graphs in a research report.

True or false

A

False

162
Q

______ is the average score in a set of data.

Choose one

A. Mean
B. Median
C. Mode
D. Central tendency

A

A. Mean

163
Q

Many standardized tests have a known ______.

Choose one

A. population mean

B. distribution

C. sample mean

D. central tendency

A

A. Population mean

164
Q

One way to think of the mean of a distribution is as the balancing point of the ______.

Choose one

A. population mean

B. distribution

C. sample mean

D. central tendency

A

B. Distribution

165
Q

______ will bias the mean toward the high or low end of the scale, depending on whether they are extremely high or extremely low

Choose one

A. Skew

B. Kurtosis

C. Outlier

D. Plots

A

C. Outlier

166
Q

______ is reported less often than the mean as a measure of central tendency.

Choose one

A. Mean

B. Median

C. Mode

D. Central tendency

A

B. Median

167
Q

Skewed distributions with extreme scores at the high or low end of the distribution are often better represented by the ______.

Choose one

A. mean

B. median

C. mode

D. central tendency

A

C. Mode

168
Q

______ scales, where categories cannot even be ordered from highest to lowest, create another problem for central tendency calculations.

Choose one

A. Nominal

B. Interval

C. Ratio

D. Ordinal

A

A. Nominal

169
Q

When the response scale only has two possible values, this type of distribution is a ______ distribution.

Choose one

A. bimodal

B. bimedial

C. binominal

D. biordinal

A

A. Bimodal

170
Q

______ is the simplest of the measures of central tendency to calculate.

Choose one

A. Mean

B. Median

C. Mode

D. Central tendency

A

C. Mode

171
Q

When there are two common scores that may not fall in the middle of the distribution, we call these ______.

Choose one

A. bimodal

B. bimedial

C. binominal

D. biordinal

A

A. Bimodal

172
Q

A specific type of archival data observation technique that involves analysis of what someone has said or written is ______.

Choose one

A. content analysis

B. transcription

C. construct validity

D. historical review

A

A. Content analysis

173
Q

When different observers of behavior record the behavior in a similar way, the measure is said to have good ______.

Choose one

A. inter-rater reliability

B. test–retest validity

C. construct validity

D. parsimony

A

A. Inter-rater reliability

174
Q

A variable that affects the results of the study but is not a variable of interest in the study, is called a(n) ______variable.

Choose one

A. independent

B. dependent

C. subject

D. confound

A

D. Confound

175
Q

A positive relationship means that the values on the variables change in ______ direction at the same time.

Choose one

A. the same

B. the opposite

C. an equal

D. random

A

A. The same

176
Q

The causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables will be unclear if ______ are not controlled.

Choose one

A. subject variables

B. independent variables

C. dependent variables

D. confounding variables

A

D. Confounding variables

177
Q

The high external validity of naturalistic observations comes with ______.

Choose one

A. low internal validity

B. high internal validity

C. low reliability

D. high reliability

A

A. Low internal validity

178
Q

A study with ______ internal validity provides causal information about behavior.

Choose one

A. measurable

B. low

C. high

D. reliable

A

C. High

179
Q

One advantage of using interviews is that you can ask about a specific behavior instead of ______.

Choose one

A. waiting for exhibited behavior spontaneously

B. observing the natural occurrence

C. prompting the behavior

D. coding the behavior

A

A. waiting for exhibited behavior spontaneously

180
Q

A survey response scale where participants respond to survey questions with options provided by the researcher is a(n) ______ scale

Choose one

A. closed-ended

B. nonverbal

C. open-ended

D. Likert-type

A

A. Closed-ended

181
Q

Researchers use ______ of participants to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous variable.

Choose one

A. controlled assignment

B. cluster assignment

C. random assignment

D. blind assignment

A

C. Random Assignment

182
Q

What are the 4 steps to creating a histogram graph?

A
  1. Construct a frequency distribution in table form.
  2. Draw bars of equal width for each class interval.
  3. Identify the class intervals on the X axis using either real limits or interval mid points
  4. Label the axis and give your histogram a title.
183
Q

A type of graph that consists of a series of rectangles the heights of which represent frequency or relative frequency

A

Histogram

184
Q

Because of the nature of qualitative data, the lines in ______ graph do not touch the spaces are indicative of the discontinuity between the categories

A

Bar graph

185
Q

Distributions can be _________, which refers to the piquedness of the distribution (how tall or how flat the distribution is)

A

Kurtosis

186
Q

The type of statistics which organize and summarize what we know from a sample

A

Descriptive statistics

187
Q

The type of statistics which help us draw conclusions about what is probably happening in a population based on observations made from a sample

A

Inferential statistics

188
Q

This information you have about a population is called a ________

A

Parameter

189
Q

Information you have about a sample is a _________

A

Statistic

190
Q

If there are answerable questions that are asked and investigated. Part of the answer to the question comes from the _________ ___________

A

Statistical Analysis

191
Q

In research and statistics one we will focus on _________, and in research and statistics 2 you will focus on __________

A

Correlation, Experiments

192
Q

This variable is manipulated by the investigator

A

Independent

193
Q

This variable is measured by the investigator

A

Dependent variable

194
Q

How can you ensure that you’ll get a good answer to your research question?

A
  1. In an experiment, control all variables except for the ones that we are interested in manipulating
  2. Ask the statistical question
195
Q

What is a question about the numerical aspect of the observations

A

Statistical question

196
Q

The conclusion about the numerical property of the data

A

Statistical conclusion

197
Q

What is the conclusion about the subject matter, using this statistical conclusion?

A

Research conclusion

198
Q

Your conclusions are only as good as what

A
  1. Your ability to control confound variables
  2. Your ability to conduct statistical analysis
  3. Your ability to apply the statistical conclusion to the research conclusion
199
Q

A single summary figure or number that best describes the central location of an entire distribution of observations

A

Measures of central tendency

200
Q

What are the 3 types of central tendency that we will discuss

A
  1. Mean
  2. Median
  3. Mode
201
Q

What does the symbol (Mo) mean?

A

Mode

202
Q

What does the symbol (Mdn) mean?

A

Median

203
Q

What does the symbol (fancy m x) mean?

A

Mean of a population

204
Q

What does the symbol ( bar over x) mean?

A

Mean of a sample

205
Q

What does the symbol (n) mean?

A

Sample size

206
Q

What does the symbol (N) mean?

A

Population size

207
Q

The 17th score would be written how to represent the value of X?

A

X17

208
Q

If you have two sets of data, the second set is noted with ____ instead of X

A

Y

209
Q

Greek alphabet sigma means?

A

Sum

210
Q

A rectangular distribution has no _____

A

Mode

211
Q

A unimodal distribution has ___ mode

A

1

212
Q

What is the only central tendency that can be used for nominal data

A

Mode

213
Q

What does it mean for the mean median and mode in a perfectly symmetrical, unimodal (normal) distribution?

A

The mean = the median = the mode

214
Q

If a distribution is negatively skewed, it is skewed to the left which means what happens to the relationship between mean median and mode

A
  1. Lower scores on the left
  2. Mean > median > mode
215
Q

If a distribution is positively skewed, it is skewed to the left, which means..

A
  1. There are fewer values on the right
  2. Mean < median < mode
216
Q

The difference between the lowest score and the highest score and a distribution (spread)

A

Range = h - l
(h- highest score, l- lowest score)

217
Q

This shows how much a score differs from the mean

A

Deviation score

218
Q

How do you calculate a deviation score

A

Subtract the mean from the raw scores
(X - X bar)

219
Q

If the deviation score is positive then it was _______ than the mean

A

Greater

220
Q

If the deviation score is negative then the raw score was ______ than the mean

A

Less

221
Q

What are some problems with just relying on deviation score

A
  1. We cannot use the deviation scores to answer this question. If we sum them, we get 0.
  2. We cannot simply drop the sign.
  3. We could square the deviation scores and this would give us all positive numbers which would then sum. Then we could use this number in a meaningful way.
222
Q

What is an easy way to say “the sum of the square deviations from the mean”?

A

SSx which stands for “Sum of Squares”

223
Q

For population variance, we use N in the denominator, but for sample variance we use ______

A

n-1

224
Q

Why do we use n -1 for sample variance

A
  1. The -1 is a correction
  2. As the sample gets larger the n-1 correction matters less and less
225
Q

What do we create by making this -1 correction for the sample variance?

A
  1. An unbiased estimation of the population variance.
  2. Artificially forces the variance to be larger than it would otherwise be.
  3. Degrees of freedom
226
Q

Staying organized when calculating variance

A
  1. Record each score
  2. Calculate X bar (mean)
  3. Calculate the deviation scores (x - x bar; you can check by adding these up should = 0 or be very close)
  4. Square each of the deviation scores (x - x bar)squared
  5. Sum of these square deviation scores to get the sum of squares (SSx)
  6. Divide the SSx by N or n as appropriate
227
Q

What are the problems with using variance and how do we fix these problems?

A

Prpblems
1. The number doesn’t usually make a lot of sense in terms of data, it is usually big.
2. We manipulated the deviations to get rid of the problem of the deviation scores adding up to equal 0. We squared them.

Solutions
1. Take the square root! This corrects for that manipulation of squaring the terms, and it will give us a smaller number that will make sense in terms of our data.
2. When we take the square root, we get the standard deviation!

228
Q

An estimate of average amount by which each score deviates from the mean score

A

Standard deviation

229
Q

Research papers usually report the mean and standard deviation. This is because the standard deviation is meaningful when we take the mean into account. In what ways is it meaningful?

A
  1. It allows us to understand the distribution in terms that allow us to know how it is behaving in general.
  2. It can help us detect outliers.
  3. It can help us understand where the bulk of the data lies.
  4. It can help us compare scores from different distributions, even when the means and standard deviations are different.
230
Q

What symbol represents variance?

A

Sx2

231
Q

What symbols represents standard deviation?

A

Sx

PSYC Research & Statistics I (4 decks)

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