Exam 1 (Chapters 1-3) Flashcards
Relying on common sense as a means of knowing about the world.
Intuition
Using logical reasoning and current knowledge as a means of knowing about the world.
Deduction
Relying on a knowledgeable person or group as a means of knowing about the world.
Authority
Relying on what one observes as a means of knowing about the world.
Observation
I’m trying to go someplace I’ve never been, but I do not know the way. I decide to turn left because it just “feels like” that’s the right way to go. This is an example of -
Intuition
I want to know which direction I am facing. The sun is setting to my right, and I know the sun sets in the west, so I know that south is the direction I am facing. This is an example of -
Deduction
I want to know what my pancreas does. I know that my pancreas produces hormones important for digestion because that is what my high school biology teacher told me. This is an example of -
Authority
I want to know how much sleep on average Americans get per night. I determine this by conducting a survey of Americans to learn that most Americans get an average of 6-8 hours of sleep per night. This is an example of -
Observation
The accuracy of the results of a study.
Validity
A group of individuals a researcher seeks to learn about from a research study.
Population
The group of individuals chosen from the population to represent it in a research study.
Sample
The difference between the observations in the population and in the sample that represents that population in a study.
Sampling Error
Statistics that help researchers summarize or describe data.
Descriptive statistics
The way a behavior is defined in a research study to allow for its measurement.
Operational definition
A variable that is measured or observed from an individual.
Dependent or response variable
A scale of data measurement that involved nonordered categorical responses.
Nominal Scale
A scale of data measurement that involves ordered cateforical responses.
Ordinal Scale
A scale of data measurement that involves numerical responses that are equally spaced, but the scores are not ratios of each other.
Interval Scale
A scale of data measurement that involves numerical responses in which scores are ratios of each other.
Ratio Scale
University where degree was earned is an example of which scale of measurement?
Nominal Scale
Letter grades earned in a course (A,B,C,D) is an example of which scale of measurement?
Ordinal Scale
Letter grades earned in a course (A,B,C,D) is an example of which scale of measurement?
Ordinal Scale
Ratings on personality surveys with values from 1-5 is an example of which scale of measurement?
Interval Scale
Age measured in days since birth is an example of which scale of measurement?
Ratio Scale
Bias created in survey responses from respondents’ desire to be viewed more favorably by others, typically resulting in overreporting of positive behaviors and underreporting of negative behaviors.
Social Desirability Bias
The degree to which a survey is an accurate measure of interest.
Construct Validity
The degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions
Reliability
A set of scores
Distribution
A graph or table of a distribution showing the frequency of each score in the distribution.
Frequency Distribution
A set of statistical procedures used by researchers to test hypothesis of populations
Inferential Statistics
A distribution of scores where the shape of the distribution shows a mirror image on either side of the middle score.
Symmetrical Distribution
A distribution of scores where the shape of the distribution shows a clustering of scores at the low or high end of the scale.
Skewed Distribution
A type of skewed distribution of scores where the shape of the distribution shows a clustering of scores at the low end of the scale
Positive Skewed Distribution
A type of skewed distribution of scores where the shape of the distribution shows a clustering of scores at the high end of the scale.
Negative Skewed Distrubtion
A type of skewed distribution of scores where the shape of the distribution shows a clustering of scores at the high end of the scale.
Negative Skewed Distribution
Freud hypothesized that many of our personality traits are controlled by an unconscious conflict between aspects of ourselves (i.d. ego, and super ego) that we are not consciously aware of. Using what you know about conducting research explain why this hypothesis is difficult to support with observations of behavior
If we do not have conscious awareness of the conflict (if it is unconscious), then it would be difficult to support the existence of this conflict through direct observations of behavior. In other words, it is difficult to falsify this theory by directly observing behavior
The scientific method relies on which way of knowing information about the world
Observation
If I am concerned about whether the survey I am using in my study accurately measures the behavior I am interested in I am considering the ______ of my study
Validity
For each study description that follows identify the most likely population of interest identified the operational definition of the behavior of interest and identify the scale of measurement of the dependent variable
Example 1: college student participants were asked to play a virtual ball tossing game during which some participants are systematically excluded from the game a short time after they began. The study tested the effects of social exclusion on the participants mood. The researchers then asked the students to complete a mood survey in which they rated their mood on a 1 to 7 scale higher numbers indicating a more positive mood.
college students; score on a scale from 1-7 that rates moods; interval
For each study description that follows identify the most likely population of interest identified the operational definition of the behavior of interest and identify the scale of measurement of the dependent variable
Example 2: To examine the effect of diet on cognitive abilities researchers taught rats to navigate maize to reach a food reward. Half other rats in the study were fed a special diet high and sugar. The other group of rats was fed the standard rat chop. The rats were then tested in the maze after being fed the assigned diet for 2 weeks. The amount of time it took the rats to reach the food reward in the maze was measured. Rats on this high sugar diet took longer to run the maze on average than the normal diet rats.
rats; time it takes to navigate maze, as indicator of cognitive abilities; ratio
For each study description that follows identify the most likely population of interest identified the operational definition of the behavior of interest and identify the scale of measurement of the dependent variable
Example 3: A study was conducted to examine the effects of violence on social behaviors and young children. 5 year olds were asked to play a superhero video game with mild violence example punching and throwing. 2 researchers who were not aware of the purpose of the study observed the children’s behavior at recess. The number of social behavior scene example helping another child or playing cooperatively with another child was recorded on a school day both Before & After they played the video game.
young children; number of social behaviors seen; ratio
Providing responses on a survey to make yourself look better is called what
A. symmetrical bias
B. skewed bias
C. social desirability bias
D. ratio bias
C. Social desirability by us
In a research study on navigation participants were asked to judge the distance of a landmark in the environment from their current location. This dependent variable was measured on what measurement scale.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
In a research study you are asked to indicate your college major on a survey this dependent variable was measured on what measurement scale
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
A. Nominal
You are conducting a study that uses IQ test. On these tests the participants score an average of 100. All other scores are evenly distributed above and below this average. What type of distribution is this
A. Skewed distribution
B. Symmetrical distribution
C. Hypothetical distribution
D. Faulty distribution
B. Symmetrical Distribution
_______ scales typically involve numerical scores whereas ______ scales do not?
A. Interval, ratio
B Ratio, nominal
C Nominal, ordinal
D. Ordinal, nominal
B. Ratio, Nominal
Truer or False - Survey data are always accurate
False
True or False - a frequency distribution graph can show you the shape of a distributor.
True
True or False - systematic and controlled measures are more direct observations of behavior than the self reports collected on surveys.
True
Of the following choices which are good operational definitions of anxiety
A. scores on an anxiety scale
B. score on an exam
C. a general feeling of helplessness
D. both a &c
A. Scores on an anxiety scale
A research question that asks about the presence of behavior how frequently it is exhibited or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors
Descriptive research question
A research question that asks what causes specific behaviors to occur
Casual research question
An explanation of behavior that can be tested through research studies
Theory
Research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental processes of a phenomena
Basic research
Research conducted with the goal of solving everyday problems
Applied research
A process of searching for and reviewing previous studies related to a study being developed to add to the knowledge in an area and make appropriate predictions about the data
Literature review
An attribute that can vary across individuals
Variable
A process that takes place prior to publication of an article in many journals where experts make suggestions for improving an article and make recommendations about whether an article should be published in a journal
Peer Review
A summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal article
Abstract
A section of an APA style article that introduces the topic of this study reviews relevant background studies and presents predictions for the data
Introduction
Section of an APA-style article that describes the participants design stimuli apparatus and procedure used in the study
Method
Section of an APA style article that presents a summary of the results and the statistical test of the prediction
Results
Section of an APA style article that compares the results of a study with the predictions and the results of previous studies
Discussion
Prediction regarding the results of a research study
Hypothesis
Hypothesis for a study that is based on a theory about the behavior of interest
Theory driven hypothesis
Hypothesis for a study that is based on the results of previous related studies
Data driven hypothesis
A prediction about the results of a study that describes the behavior or the relationship between behaviors
Descriptive hypothesis
A prediction about the results of a study that includes the causes of a behavior
Causal hypothesis
For each of the following pieces of information that follow identify the appropriate sections of an APA style paper it should be placed in
Example 1: reference to a figure
References?
For each of the following pieces of information that follow identify the appropriate sections of an APA style paper it should be placed in
Example 2: description of the stimuli shown to subjects
Method - Materials
For each of the following pieces of information that follow identify the appropriate sections of an APA style paper it should be placed in
Example 3: A statement of the hypothesis
Introduction and Discussion
For each of the following pieces of information that follow identify the appropriate sections of an APA style paper it should be placed in
Example 4: suggestions for future studies
Discussion
For each of the following pieces of information that follow identify the appropriate sections of an APA style paper it should be placed in
Example 5: mean scores
Results
Explain why the method of a study is described in detail in an APA style paper
So that it can be replicated
For the information in the list that follows indicate in which sections of a journal article should be found
Example 1: average scores for different groups in a study
Results
For the information in the list that follows indicate in which sections of a journal article should be found
Example 2: number of participants in the setting
Method - Participants
For the information in the list that follows indicate in which sections of a journal article should be found
Example 3: researchers hypothesis
Introduction and Discussion
For the information in the list that follows indicate in which sections of a journal article should be found
Example 4: comparison of results of present study with results of previous study
Discussion
For the information in the list that follows indicate in which sections of a journal article should be found
Example 5: summary of the instructions given to the participants
Method-Procedure
Describe how theory driven and data driven hypothesis are made
Theory-driven hypotheses are made using predictions of a theory for a research study. Data-driven hypotheses are made by generalizing results from past studies to the results of a research study.
Explain why the following research question is not an appropriate research question for psychological research. Does every human being have a soul?
This is an inappropriate research question for psychological studies because it would be difficult to observe behaviors to answer this question. In other words, it is a question that cannot be answered by scientific methods because there are no clear behaviors that are seen as indicative of a soul.
What is a peer reviewed journal article and how does it differ from an article you might find in a popular magazine?
A peer-reviewed journal article is typically an article written to describe a research study to inform other researchers what has previously been found in an area of psychology. Peer reviewed means that the article has been reviewed by experts in the area before publication to improve the article and make a recommendation about publication. An article in a popular magazine would likely provide a short summary of the study and may not accurately reflect the original article. Thus, magazine articles are considered secondary (rather than primary) sources.
What is a literature review and why is it an important part of the research process?
A literature review is a review of previous research in an area to allow a researcher to conduct research that does not replicate what has previously been done and to allow researchers to make accurate predictions about a study’s outcome.
For each research question that follows identify the behavior variable and the causal variable.
Example 1: do men and women differ in conscientiousness
Behavior variable: conscientiousness; Causal variable: gender (men and women).
For each research question that follows identify the behavior variable and the causal variable.
Example 2: does waking up at the same time every day improve sleep quality
Behavior variable: sleep quality; Causal variable: waking up at the same time.
For each research question that follows identify the behavior variable and the causal variable.
Example 3: does ostracism increase violent behavior
Behavior variable: violent behavior; Causal variable: ostracism.
For each research question that follows identify the behavior variable and the causal variable.
Example 4: is eyewitness memory in children worse than an adult
Behavior variable: eyewitness memory; Causal variable: age (children and adults).
For each research question that follows identify the behavior variable and the causal variable.
Example 5: does using crutches change the way you perceive the size of an opening
Behavior variable: perceiving the size of an opening; Causal variable: using crutches.
Explain the differences between a database such as psychINFO and a search engine such as Google
PsycINFO will yield peer-reviewed articles about research. Google will yield other types of information (such as popular magazine articles) that are considered secondary sources that may not be reliable.
A short summary of a journal article that appears at the beginning of the article and in databases such as psych info is called what?
Abstract
A hypothesis that proposes a link between exercise and memory would be classified as what hypothesis
Descriptive
What is the difference between an empirical journal article and a book chapter or review article?
The primary difference between an empirical article and a book chapter or review article is that the empirical article will describe the details (purpose, method, results, conclusions) of a single study (or set of studies), whereas book chapters and review articles summarize and organize a large set of studies by many researchers.
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- statements of hypothesis
Introduction and Discussion sections
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- graphs of the means for each condition
Results section
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- A description of the questionnaire that participants completed
Method section, Materials subsection
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- the number of participants or subjects in the study
Method section, Participants subsection
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- a citation for a published source
any of the major sections can contain a citation: Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion—the Abstract may also contain citations
In which section of an APA style article would you include following information about your study
- instructions that were given to the participants
Method section, Procedure subsection.
Which of the following is true about formatting an APA style article? Choose all that apply.
A. 2” margins should be used
B. The entire article should be double space
C. Tables and figures should be embedded into the result section
D. You need to provide citations only when you quote from a source
E. You should begin a new page for the reference section
only (b) and (e) are true
For the citation examples that follow indicate which ones display correct APA style
A. Reggia Cortez and wagman 2008 reported that participants perceived a slope to be more difficult to stand on when wearing a weighted backpack
B. In a review of how scientific thinking skills develop Corinne Zimmerman reported many studies that support this theory
C. The list strength effect is exhibited when stronger items in a list produce better memory than weaker items
D. The method used in the current study is based on the method described by Garrison
a and c are correct.
Place the following apa style sections into the correct order in which they should appear in a manuscript: Results, introduction, procedure, discussion, abstract, references, title page, participants
Correct order: Title Page, Abstract, Introduction, Participants, Procedure, Results, Discussion, References.
Explain how an oral presentation differs from a poster presentation
An oral presentation provides an oral description of the major sections of a research report, typically with visual aids such as PowerPoint. There is often a time limit for oral presentations. Poster presentations provide a visual report of a research study, including each major section of the report. Authors are typically on site to provide oral summaries or more detailed information about the study the poster describes.
In APA style the participant section is a subsection of the what section
Method
Figures and tables will most likely be referred to in the what section of an APA style paper
Results
Set of ethical guidelines developed for research with human participants based on information gain during the numbered trials after World War II
Nurmberg code
Obtaining consent from participants for participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose procedure and risks of the risks of the research
Informed consent
Forcing participants to participate in research without their consent
Coercion
Misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of a research study
Deception
A person who is part of a research study but acts as though he or she is not to deceive the participant about the study’s purpose
Confederate
Discussing the purpose and benefits of a research study with participants often done at the end of the study
Debriefing
A form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and to explain the study’s purpose and risk and the participant’s rights as participants
Consent form
Weighing the risks against the benefits of a research study to ensure that the benefits out way the risks
Risk benefit analysis
The researchers responsibility to protect the participants identity and right to privacy including participant responses during and after the research study
Confidentiality
A committee of knowledgeable individuals who oversee the ethics of research with human participants conducted at an institution
Institutional review board
What are the 3 categories of IRB review
- exempt
- expedited
- full review
Those studies that have the smallest amount of risk involved
Exempt study
Studies that involve minimal risk, Need to be reviewed by only one member of the IRB which speeds up the process of review
Expedited studies
Studies with the highest amount of risk where each member of the IRB reviews the research proposal
Full review studies
List the set of criteria used by IRB members to evaluate research proposals and ensure that the research meets the ethical guidelines described in the Belmont report
- the researcher minimizes unnecessary risk to the participants
- the risk in the study is justified by the potential benefits of the study
- the selection of the participants is fair and appropriate for the study
- an informed consent process is included in the study and can’t be documented by the researcher
- the researcher monitors collection of the data to ensure the safety of the purchase appeared during the course of the study
- the privacy and confidentiality of the participants is protected by the researcher
- if a special participant group is included in the study procedures must be included to protect the rights of these participants
A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose
Demand characteristics
An experiment conducted in the participants natural environment
Field experiment
Why is the debriefing process especially important in studies that involve deception?
The debriefing process is especially important for research that involves deception because the goal is that participants leave a study with as positive an impression of the research as possible and not be emotionally harmed by the study. In addition, participants have the right to a thorough explanation of the study. Explaining why the deception was necessary is important in achieving these goals.
Which of the following is part of the ethical guidelines for research with human participants
A. no identifying information May be collected from the participants during the study
B. participants can withdraw from the study at any point before the study begins but not after that point
C. participants must be informed about the study’s procedures before they are asked to give consent for their participation
D. all of the above
C. participants must be informed about the study’s procedures before they are asked to give consent for their participation
Which of the following is part of the ethical guidelines for research with animal subjects
A. only trained personnel may be involved with the research
B. discomfort of the animals must be minimized as much as possible
C. use of animals and the particular species of animal used must be strongly justified for the study
D. all of the above
D. all of the above
The Web provides a set of ethical guidelines provided by the US government that must be adhered to by all researchers conducting studies with human participants
A. Nuremberg code
B. APA ethics code
C. Belmont report
D. institutional animal care in use committee
C. Belmont report
Inform consent involves what
A. informing participants about the study and its risks
B. obtaining participants consent to run them in the study
C. explaining all of the researchers hypothesis before the participants consent
D. A and B only
D. A and B only
The Belmont report principle of what involves making certain that harm to the subjects in a research study is reduced such that the benefit of the study is greater than the risk
beneficence
If I were to discuss a research study without citing the source or authors of the study I would be guilty of what
plagiarism
What are the 3 major principles of the Belmont report (Federal Guidelines)
- respect for person
- beneficence
- Justice
Which principle of the Belmont report would be used to apply to the following
1. Information about the study must be provided before it begins (nature of participation, purpose, risks, benefits).
2. Voluntary consent from participants must be given after they are informed
3. participants should have the opportunity to ask questions
4. participants should be informed of right to withdraw
Respect for persons
Which principle of the Belmont Report could be applied to the following
1. there should be a reduced risk of harm to participants
2. potential benefits of the study must out way risks
3. inhumane treatment of participants is never justified
Beneficence
Which principle of the Belmont Report can be applied to the following
1. selection of participants must be fair
2. all participant groups must have opportunity to receive benefits of research
3. no participation groups may be unfairly selected for harmful research
Justice
What is the Milgram study of 1963?
This study was about observing how far someone was willing to go to harm another person under the request of an authority figure.
Suppose you wanted to replicate the Milgram 1963 study to adhere to ethical guidelines currently in place for psychological. What changes would you need to make to the procedures in order to conduct the study ethically
As mentioned in the chapter, Burger (2009) conducted a modified replication of this study in conjunction with ABC News’ Primetime show. To make the study ethical (and have it approved by his IRB), he made the following changes: (a) shock labels only went to 150 volts, at which point the confederate first objected verbally to the shocks, (b) participants were prescreened to rule out individuals who might be more greatly affected by the stressful conditions of the study, (c) right to withdraw from the study was emphasized (once verbally and twice in writing) to make this right more salient to participants, and (d) the experimenter was a clinical psychologist who immediately stopped the study at the first sign of excessive stress from the participant.
Given what it described in this chapter regarding the informed consent process make a list of information that should be provided on a consent form for participants in your modified Milgram 1963 study
The consent form should include the following: a statement that the participant is being asked to volunteer for research, that his or her participation is voluntary and he or she has the right to withdraw at any time without penalty, the purpose and the procedures of the study, the risks (including possible stress) and benefits of the study, and information about whom the participants can contact if they have questions or concerns about the study.
Write a debriefing statement that you think might be appropriate for the middlemist 1976 study on male urination described in this chapter
Answers will vary but debriefing for this study should explain that the purpose of the study was to investigate natural physiological responses that occur to most individuals due to an invasion of personal space. It should also include information that the participant’s data will be kept completely confidential, that the participant has the right to withdraw from the study at any time, even after the study (especially if an informed consent process did not take place before the study), and information about whom the participants may contact if they have further questions or are feeling uncomfortable about participating in the study.
What is the proper citation format for journal articles?
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Journal, xx(yy), pp–pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx
Adair, J. G., & Vohra, N. (2003). The explosion of knowledge, references, and citations: Psychology’s unique response to a crisis. American Psychologist, 58(1), 15–23. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.15
is an example of a citation for what?
A Journal article
What is the proper citation format for books?
Author, A. A. (year). Title of book. Location: Publisher.
Kashdan, T., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2014). The upside of your dark side. New York, NY: Hudson Street Press.
is an example of a citation for what?
A book
What is the proper citation format for Book Chapters?
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor, B. B. Editor, & C. C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx–xxx). Location: Publisher.
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Lynn, S. J. (2003). Dissociative identity disorder: Multiple personalities, multiple controversies. In S. O. Lilienfeld, S. J. Lynn, & J. M. Lohr (Eds.), Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology (pp. 109–142). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
is an example of a citation for what?
A book Chapter
What are the two different ways of citation within text?
- Use author’s last name and year of publication with only the year in parenthesis
- Use author’s last names and year of publication, both in parenthesis
Example 1 - A.
Burger (2008) conducted a replication of Milgram’s (1963) original obedience study.
Example 1 - B.
Although many people believe that women are more talkative than men, Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Slatcher, and Pennebaker (2007) found essentially no difference in the number of words spoken by male and female college students.
Example 2 - A
People can be surprisingly obedient to authority figures (Burger, 2008; Milgram, 1963).
Example 2 - B
Recent evidence suggests that men and women are similarly talkative (Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Slatcher, & Pennebaker, 2007).
Knowing ______ and _______ for opinion polls helps decide utility of a poll
sample size, margin of error
Why do researchers check construct validity and reliability of surveys and questionnaires?
- Accurately measure the behavior of interest.
- Ensure they will produce consistent results when used in research studies.
Because survey data have some issues that can affect their validity, researchers are careful in check the construct validity of surveys and questionnaires when they are first used to make sure that they accurately measure the behaviors of interest. Reliability of surveys and questionnaires is also examined before they are used as measured of a behavior to ensure that they will produce consistent results when they are used in research studies.
What are the drawbacks of more direct observations of behavior than self-reports collected on surveys?
1.Participants’ behavior changes when they know the point of observation.
2. Can provide high internal validity but may also have lower external validity
What are empirical questions?
Questions that are answerable with data.
What does qualitative measures mean?
Non-numerical
What does quantitative measures mean?
Numerical
What are the two requirements of an empirical question?
- Questions must be refined and clear
- Terms (variables) precisely defined
General broad concepts that cannot be directly observed or measured
Constructs
What is created by taking a construct and defining it in a way that it can be observable or measured?
Variable
The explicit explanation of a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated for a specific study/ purpose
Operational Definitions
These variables refer to pre-existing characteristics of participants even before participation in a study.
Organismic/subject variables
A factor that is not of interest to the researcher but could affect the outcome of a study.
Extraneous variables
Hunger = 12 hours without food
Frustration = consequence of being blocked from goal
are both examples of
Operational Definitions
- What the researcher is interested in learning about
- Everyday events
- Real-world problems
- Explanations of behaviors that need to be tested (theories)
are all sources for _________
Research Questions
What 2 questions should you consider asking yourself while choosing a research question?
- Can it be answered using scientific method?
- How much is already known about it?
To conduct the most up-to-date literature review, it can be helpful to attend a _______ in an area where researcher often present studies that have not yet been published.
Psychological conferences
If you are conducting a literature review on topics such as standardized testing, you may also want to search for articles in _____
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center)
If you are interested in conducting a literature review on topics in biological psychology or about psychological disorders or specific conditions such as autism, you may want to search ______ in addition to ______ to complete a thorough literature review.
PubMed (MEDLINE) and PsycINFO
_______ searches the web for academic journals and books to find articles relevant to a defined topic or specific author.
Google Scholar
What are the subsections of the method of an Empirical article?
- Participants
- Design
- Materials (or apparatus)
- Procedure
How do you cite 3 author’s or more?
author’s last name’s separated with commas then publication year
How do you cite 3 author’s or more with another citation of the same article?
author’s last name’s separated with commas then publication year, only include last name of the first author and et al. to indicate there are other authors
The title page of an article includes what 5 categories?
- Title of the article
- The author’s names
- The author’s affiliations centered on the page
- A running head that is a shortened version of the title. Typed in all caps, header, left margin
- Page number. Header, right margin, every page in the article
The subsection of the method that describes the relevant details of the participants or subjects in your study
Participants
The subsection of the method that is included for studies with more complex designs (experiments) to improve the clarity of the method. It describes the variables in your study and how they were measured and manipulated.
Design
The subsection of the method that contains information about what was used to run the study. Any stimuli or questionnaires presented in the study are described in this subsection, including the origin of these materials and number of items.
Materials or apparatus
The subsection of the method that describes what the participants or subjects experience in the study in chronological order.
Procedure
What is the purpose of a research proposals?
Typically written to convince someone else that a research project should be conducted. The purpose may be to obtain grant funds to conduct the project or to propose a project for a class.
- Participation in research is voluntary, and participants must be given information about the risks involved in the research (informed consent and freedom from coercion.)
- The research must contribute to scientific knowledge and be conducted by qualified researchers.
- The researchers must avoid unnecessary harm, take precautions against risk, ensure that benefits outweigh the risks of the study, and terminate the study if unforeseen harm comes to the participants.
- The participants have the right to discontinue their participation in the study (freedom from coercion)
Ethical guidelines in the Nuremberg Code (Schuler, 1982)
What is the Zimbardo (1973) Prison Experiment
Mock prison environment, would people take on the social roles of a prisoner or guard.
What are the 5 general APA ethical principles?
- Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
- Fidelity and Responsibility
- Integrity
- Justice
- Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. Psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally.
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work.
Fidelity and Responsibility
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. Psychologists do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or intentional misrepresentation of fact.
Integrity
Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists.
Justice
Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
Respect for People’s rights and Dignity
- Research should be approved by the researcher’s IRB where applicable
- Research must include an informed consent process
- Purpose of the research
- Expected duration of participation
- Procedures used in the research
- Participants’ rights to decline to participate and withdraw participation at any time and the consequences of withdrawal
- Foreseeable risks of the research to the participants
- Benefits of the research
- Confidentiality rights of the participants
- Incentives for participation. - In addition to 2, if the research involved an experimental treatment, the participants must be informed that it is experimental, how participants will be assigned to groups, the available alternative treatments, and the compensation they will receive for participation
- In addition to 2, if the research involves recording of the participants, they must be informed ahead of time if it does not compromise the research to do so.
- Incentives for participation must be reasonable so as not to be coercive.
- If the researcher involved deception, the researchers must determine that the deception is necessary and justified and explain any use of deception to participants as soon as possible at the completion of the study. Researchers may not use deception that is expected to cause physical pain or severe distress.
- Thorough debriefing must be given for the study. If it is not possible to give debriefing immediately, researchers must protect against participants’ harm.
- If researchers become aware of unexpected harm to participants, they must take reasonable measure to reduce harm, including termination of the study if necessary.
- The following are rules to be remembers while doing research with animals
- Adhere to federal and local guidelines for care and treatment of animals.
- Involve trained personnel
- Minimize discomfort to the animals
- Justify painful or stressful procedures and only use them when alternative procedures cannot be used.
- Use anesthesia and prevent infection when surgical procedures are used.
- terminate animals quickly with minimal pain if termination is necessary. - Researchers must report data accurately and correct errors if they are discovered.
- Researchers must properly cite others’ ideas and work when reporting research.
- Publication credit can be taken only for work the authors have performed, and credit order should be determined according to the contribution of each author.
- Data should be shared with other researchers to allow verification of results.
APA Ethics Code for Research
- The entire article should be double-spaced.
- Use 1-in margins all around the pages.
- Type the running head in the top left header and the page number in the top right header of each page.
- Use past tense when you describe any study that has already been completed. The only exception to this rule is if you are writing a proposal for a research study that has not yet been conducted. In this case, use future tense to describe the study. Always use past tense to describe details of published studies.
- Use active voice in your writing.
- When you present numbers in your article, use words for numbers one through nine, and numerals for values 10 and above, unless the number is a measurement, statistical value, or a value representing the sample, for which you should always use numbers. In addition, all numbers in the abstract should be in numerical form.
- Any number that begins a sentence should be presented as a word.
- Numbers that are used in lists (Study 1, Study 2, Group 1, Group 2, etc.) should be given in numerical form.
- If you use abbreviations in your article, you must define the abbreviation the first time you use it. APA style provides for a few exceptions for some abbreviations that do not need to be defined, such as M for mean, min for minute, and so on, when they are presented with a value.
APA style guidelines to article writing
The approach in which every participant has the same traits
Nomathetic approach
The approach in which some participants have traits that are specific to them
Idiographic approach
When using a psychological construct, what scale of measurement can never be used? Even if the scale they are measured with includes a 0
Ratio Scale
The primary criteria for good scientific writing are _____ and _____
Accuracy and clarity
The first step towards clarity is _____
Good organization
The second step towards clarity is ____
To write simply and directly
What are the 4 rules of thumb for your opening statements in an article.
- Write an English prose, not psychological jargon
- Do not plunge unprepared readers into the middle of your problem or theory.
- Use examples to illustrate theoretical points or to introduce unfamiliar conceptual or technical terms
- Whenever possible, try to open with a statement about people or animals, not psychologists or their research
Is the following statement right or wrong. Individuals differ radically from one another in the degree to which they are willing and able to express their emotions
Right
Is the following statement right or wrong. Research and the forced compliance paradigm has focused on the effects of predecisional alternatives all alternatives and incentive magnitude
Wrong
Is the statement right or wrong. Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance received a great deal of attention during the latter part of the 20th century
Wrong
What actions should be taken while writing your introduction for an empirical article?
- Opening statement
- A literature review (Publication Manual)
- Citations
- Criticizing previous work
- Ending the Introduction
When writing an empirical article, the method should include..
- Overview of study
- Describe experiment
- Describe environment of room
- Show sample items of materials
What is another term for an independent variable
Factor
How many levels or conditions need to exist with an independent variable?
At least 2
What term can also be used instead of levels for an independent variable?
Conditions
If we have a true independent variable we will do what?
Randomly assign participants to the conditions or levels.
In a quasi-experiment design, we use a truly independent variable in conjunction with a _____ variable
Organismic or subject variable
Subject or organismic variables can be used in which ways?
- Quasi-experiment design
- Correlation investigation
An extraneous variable can also be called what?
Confound variable
If other people and other labs are also finding the same results as your experiment
Converging operations
