Exam 2 (Ch.4,5,6,7,8,&9) Flashcards
Which theory blieved that the cognitive development occurred through assimilation and accommodation?
Piaget
What is assimilation and accommodation?
assimilation is when new experiences add to existing schemas, and accommodation is when schemas change from experience
What happens in equilibration?
when current schemas are inadequate (disequilibrium), children reorganize their schemas to return to equilibrium
How does thinking become more advanced during the sensorimotor stage?
they become active experimenters (by repeating actions with different objects to see what happens)
develop object permanence
and symbolic behavior emerges at 18 months and by 20 months they can play pretend
What are the distinguishing characteristics of preoperational thinking?
egocentrism, centration, and belief in appearance as reality
What is egocentrism?
the belief that other see the world exactly as you do
What are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory?
- underestimates infant cognitive competence
- assimilation and accommodation is too vague to explain the process of change
- doesn’t account for variability of performance
- doesn’t emphasize the influence of sociocultural factors
What is the Core Knowledge Hypothesis?
it hypothesized that children are born with fundamental knowledge that their experiences help elaborate on
What are the 2 ways contemporary researchers extended Piaget’s theory?
- Core Knowledge Hypothesis
- Naive Theories (Naive physics and biology)
What is the basis of the information-processing approach?
thinking is based on both mental hardware and software and becomes more advanced as children develop
What is mental hardware and software?
Hardware is built-in mental and neural structures that allow the mind to operate
Software is “programs” that are the basis of performing particular tasks
How well do young children pay attention?
preschool children gradually learn how to focus their attention but are more easily distracted than older children
What age are the hippocampus and the frontal cortex developed and what are they responsible for?
hippocampus develops during the first year and is responsible for storage of info
frontal cortex is developed during the second years and is responsible for the retrieval of info
What 3 principles help children learn to count and how do they help?
One-to-one principle (there is exactly one number name for each object)
Stable-order principle (number names must be counted in the same order)
Cardinality principle (number names cannot repeat the last)
What is the zone of proximal development?
the difference between what a child can do alone and with assistance
How is scaffolding helpful in teaching youngsters new concepts & skills?
allows children to collaborate with the teacher instead of telling them everything to do or letting them struggle
What is scaffolding?
when teachers match the amount of assistance they offer to the learners’ needs
What is Vygotsky’s view on private speech?
he viewed it as a child’s way of guiding themselves and believed that as they gain skills, private speech becomes inner speech (aka thought)
What are phenomes?
basic building blocks of language sounds that can be joined to create words (consonant sounds)
At what age can infants first hear and make speech sounds?
they can distinguish sounds as early as 1 month and start to coo and babble at 2 months
How do children learn new words and word meanings?
they use fast-mapping, the ability to connect new words to referents so rapidly that they cannot consider all possible meanings for the new word causing underextension or overextension
What is underextension and overextension?
defining a word too narrowly (“car” for only the family car and not other automobiles) or too broadly (“dog” for all four-legged animals)
What are the 2 word-learning styles?
referential style, when their vocab mainly consists of object, people, action words
expressive style, when their vocab mainly consists of social phrases used like a single word (like “go away”
What is telegraphic speech?
when speech includes only words directly relevant to te meaning with no grammatical morphemes (e.g. I hungry)
What are grammatical morphemes?
words or endings of words (-ing, -s) that make a sentence grammatical
What is overregularization?
when children apply rules to words that are exceptions to the rule (e.g. mans instead of men)
How would a behaviorist explain how children learn grammar?
grammar is learned through imitations and reinforcement
How would a linguist explain how children learn grammar?
children are born with brain circuits for inferring the grammar of their native language
How do cognitive psychologists explain how children learn grammar?
children have cognitive skills that detect patterns in their environment
How do social-interaction psychologists explain how children learn grammar?
grammar and language is learned through interactions with other people
How well do youngsters communicate with speech?
by 10 months, they may point, touch, or make noises to get attention
By 1 year, they converse about themselves and objects in the environment
By 5 years, they may learn to elaborate to listeners who lack critical info and communication is proficient
Babies hear ________ from birth. They begin to ____ between 2 and 4 months and then begin to _______ at about 6 months
Phonemes, Coo, Babble
By their 1st birthday, babies begin to talk and to gesture, showing they have begun to use ________.
Symbols
By 18 months, vocabulary expands rapidly due to _________ and ___-_____ sentences merge in telegraphic speech.
Fast mapping, two-words
From 3-5 years vocabulary continues to expand, grammatical ___________ are added but they often ignore _________ in messages they receive.
Morphemes, problems
What are Erikson’s first three stages of psychosocial development?
Basic Trust vs Mistrust
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
What do they gain from the Basic Trust vs Mistrust stage?
hope (an openness to new experiences)
What do they gain from Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt stage?
will (the knowledge that youngsters can act on their world intentionally)
What do they gain from the Initiative vs Guilt stage?
purpose
Describe the preattachment stage.
0-2 months, indiscriminate social responsiveness
Describe attachment-in-the-making stage.
2-7 months, discriminate social responsiveness
Describe the true attachment stage.
7-18 months, specific attachment
Describe a reciprocal relationship between a infant and parent.
infants take initiative in interactions and begin to understand parents’ feeling and goals
How would an infant with secure attachment react if their mother left?
may or may not cry but when she returns they will return to playing
How would an infant with avoidant attachment react if their mother left?
may ignore when she leaves and returns
How would an infant with resistant attachment react if their mother left?
upset when mother leaves, remains upset/angry when she returns
How would an infant with disorganized attachment react if their mother left?
seems confused when mother leaves and when she returns
What is internal working model?
set of expectations an infant develops about parent’s availability and responsiveness
What are the three elements of basic emotions?
- a subjective feeling
- physiological change
- an overt behavior
At ____________ children begin to express basic emotions and stranger wariness?
6 months
When children look at their parents to interpret the situation its called _________________.
social referencing
By __ __________ , infants begin to distinguish facial expressions with different emotions.
4 months
When do complex emotions develop? (typically occurs after some understanding of self)
18 to 24 months
What type of play involves youngsters to play alone but they may interesting what another is doing?
Parallel play
What type of play involves youngsters to talk or smile at one another and engage in similar activities?
simple social play
What type of play includes an organized theme and special roles?
Cooperative play
What a evident difference between girl and boy actions when playing?
girls have enabling actions and boys have constricting action
What is alturism?
behavior driven by feelings of responsibility towards other people where individuals do not benefit directly from (sharing and helping)
By ___ years, youngsters are critical of peers who engage in gender-inappropriate play.
3
What does the gender-schema theory propose?
children first decide whether an object, activity or behavior is associated with females or males, then decide if they should learn more about the object, activity or behavior
In conrete-operational stage, ______________ wanes, they gain a understanding that events can be _________________ in many ways, and they understand that appearances can be _______________.
egocentrism, interpreted, deceiving
What is the distinguishing characteristic of thought in the concrete-operational stage?
Mental Operations: cognitive actions can performed on objects or ideas (can think in reverse)
In formal-operational, they can think ____________ and reason ___________.
hypothetically, abstractly
What is the distinguishing characteristic of thought in the formal-operational.
Deductive reasoning: ability to draw conclusions
What are 2 strategies do children use to improve learning and remembering?
Organization (using structured information to remember)
Elaboration (embellishing information to make it more memorable)
What is metamemory?
a person’s understanding of memory, including the ability to diagnose memory problems and to monitor the effectiveness of strategies
What is metacognitive knowledge?
knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes
What are the 4 main characteristics of gifted children?
- are above average
- passionate and their subject and want to master it
- are creative thinkers
- need challenging curriculum to stimulate their minds
What are the key characteristics of an intellectual disability?
below-average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment (emerges before 18 years of age)
What are 4 factors that put an individual at risk for an intellectual disability?
biomedical factors
social factors
behavioral factors
educational factors
What are the key characteristics of a learning disability? (dyslexia, dyscalculia)
difficulty mastering an academic subjet with normal intelligence, and not suffering from other conditions that explain poor performance.
What are the distinguishing features of ADHD?
hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity
What are the 3 primary dimensions of parenting?
Degree of warmth and responsiveness, psychological control, and behavioral control
Describe authoritarian parenting style.
combines high control with little warmth
Describe authoritative parenting style.
combines a fair degree of parental control with being warm and responsive
Describe permissive parenting style?
offers warmth and caring but little control
What is direct instruction?
telling a child what to do, when and explaining why
What are the benefits of friendship?
greater self-esteem and less likely to be lonely and depressed
What is a clique?
a small group who are friends and tend be similar in age, sex, race, and attitudes (often dress, talk and act alike)
What is instrumental aggression?
a child uses aggression to achieve an explicit goal
What is hostile aggression?
when a child uses unprovoked aggression in order to intimidate or harass another child
What is relational aggresssion?
children try to hurt others by undermining their social relationships (e.g. spreading rumors)
True or False: TV can affect children in different ways depending on the content
True
True or False: Young children often see others “through rose colored glasses” un about 5 years.
False; 10 years
As children develop, how do their descriptions of others change?
children first describe others in terms of concrete features, later they begin using abstract traits
What are the 3 physical changes that occur during adolescence?
Physical growth, brain growth, sexual maturation
How does the brain grow during adolescence?
myelination occurs (makes neurons transmit faster) and synaptic pruning (weeding out unnecessary connections)
What are examples of primary and secondary sex characteristics that mature in adolescence?
Primary include ovaries, vagina, testes, penis
Secondary include breast, facial hair
Which gland is responsible for releasing growth hormones and signaling other glands to secrete hormones?
pituitary gland
How many calories is healthy for adolescents?
2,200 calories for girls, 2,700 calories for boys
How do working memory and processing speed change during adolescence?
adolescents have adult like working memory capacity and processing speed
Describe the stages in the preconvental level of Kholberg’s Theory of Moral reasoning.
Obedience and punishment stage, believe that authority figures know what is right and wrong
Individual interest stage, they look out for their own needs
Describe the stages of the conventional level of Kholber’gs Theory of Moral reasoning.
Interpersonal stage, aims to win the approval of other people by behaving as “good people” would
Authority stage, belief that social roles, expectations and laws exist to maintain order
Describe the stages of postconventional level of Kholberg’s Theory of Moral reasoning.
Social contract stage, belief that social order and individual provide balance
Universal ethics stage, belief in abstract principles such as justice and quality that may sometimes conflict with society’s expectations and laws
What are the criticisms of the Kohlberg’s theory?
relies on primarily American and Judeo-Christican culture
What are the 4 statuses of achieving an identity?
Diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and achievement.
What is the difference between diffusion and foreclosure status?
diffusion means they don’t have a strong sense of who they are and not actively working on it
foreclosure means they are commiting to alifestyle without exploring other options
What is the different between the moratorium and achievement status?
moratorium means they actively exploring options and achievement means they have already explored and have decided and acted on their identity
What are the 3 stages of acquiring an ethnic identity?
initial disinterest, exploration, and identity achievement
How does the Theory of vocational choice explain how adolescents select an occupation?
3 stages, crystallization (basic interests are identified), specifications (jobs associated with interests are identified), and implementation (entry to workforce)
