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BIO 107 > Exam 2 - Ch. 6-8 > Flashcards

Exam 2 - Ch. 6-8 Flashcards

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1
Q

The complete transfer of an electron from lithium to fluorine results in a stable compound in which both atoms have full outermost shells. What type of bond is this?

A

Ionic

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2
Q

Gaseous hydrogen burns in the presence of oxygen to form water:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + energy

Which molecule is oxidized?
What type of bond is formed? Polar/non-polar

A

Hydrogen is oxidized bc it loses electrons to oxygen, which is more electronegative and thus pulls the electrons closer to itself in the water molecule.
POLAR

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3
Q

The 3 phosphate groups in an ATP molecule carry negative charges that strongly repel each other and give ATP a large amount of _______ ________.

A

potential energy

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4
Q

What is the product of glycolysis?

A

pyruvate

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5
Q

Why is oxygen one of the most powerful oxidizing agents?

A

Because it is so electronegative

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6
Q

The more electronegative the atom (the stronger its pull on electrons), the more _________ is required to take an electron away from it.

A

energy

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7
Q

The electrons _______ energy as they move down the chain, and this energy is used to create a ______ _______ that drives the synthesis of ATP.

A

lose - proton gradient

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8
Q

Another name for chemiosmosis?

A

ATP synthase (in oxidative phosphorylation)

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9
Q

What are the electron carriers in glycolysis? Electrons removed from glucose must be passed on to some other molecule, called an electron carrier.

A

NAD+ accepts the electrons and is reduced to NADH (which actually carries the electrons)

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10
Q

Acetyl CoA is further oxidized to ______.

A

CO2

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11
Q

The conversion of glucose to pyruvate in glycolysis involves the removal of electrons from glucose. These electrons are passed to the electron carrier ______, converting it to ______.

A

NAD+ / NADH

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12
Q

What are the net products of glycolysis?

A

2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate

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13
Q

The carbon compound that enters the citric acid cycle has the compound CoA (coenzyme A) attached to it. CoA is not metabolized (broken down) in the citric acid cycle. What is the fate of CoA?

A

it is an ouput

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14
Q

CAC:
2Cs f/ acetyl group oxidized –> 2 ____
NAD+ (reduced or oxidized) –> NADH?
FAD (reduced or oxidized) –> FADH2?
1 ATP is produced

A

CO2 - reduced - reduced

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15
Q

In oxidative phosphorylation, all of the reduced electron carriers produced in the previous stages are _______ by oxygen via the ____(3)____.

A

Oxidized - ETC

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16
Q

The ETC is embedded in the ____ _____ of the mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells.

A

inner membrane

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17
Q

The CAC and acetyl CoA formation take place in?

A

mitochondrial matrix

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18
Q

______ and ______ are both electron carriers that donate their electrons to the ETC.

A

NADH and FADH2

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19
Q

Why more ATP is made per molecule of NADH than per molecule of FADH2?

A

It results in fewer protons being pumped into the intermembrane space

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20
Q

Acetyl CoA formation is regulated by being coupled to oxidative phosphorylation. A compound produced (an output) in oxidative phosphorylation serves as a substrate (an input) in a reaction in acetyl CoA formation. If oxidative phosphorylation does not provide that compound, acetyl CoA formation will stop.

A

NAD+

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21
Q

Without _____ as an input, acetyl CoA production cannot continue.

A

NAD+

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22
Q

Without ____, electron transport stops, and the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA also stops because of the lack of ______.

A

O2 - NAD+

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23
Q

The rate of cellular respiration is regulated by its major product, ______, via feedback inhibition.

A

ATP

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24
Q

An increased demand for ATP by a cell will cause an initial _______ in the level of cellular ATP. Lower ATP decreases the inhibition of the PFK enzyme, thus increasing the rate of glycolysis, cellular respiration, and ATP production. It is the initial _____ in ATP levels that leads to an increase in ATP production.

A

decrease x2

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25
Q

During strenuous exercise, anaerobic conditions can result if the cardiovascular system cannot supply oxygen fast enough to meet the demands of muscle cells. Assume that a muscle cell’s demand for ATP under anaerobic conditions remains the same as it was under aerobic conditions.
What would happen to the cell’s rate of glucose utilization?

A

increase a lot

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26
Q

In muscle cells, fermentation produces _____ & _____.

A

lactate & NAD+

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27
Q

In fermentation: ______ from glycolysis is reduced to either lactate or ethanol, and ______ is oxidized to _____.

A

pyruvate - NADH - NAD+

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28
Q

The basic function of fermentation is the regeneration of ______, which allows continued ATP production by glycolysis, NOT to produce more _____, ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

A

NAD+ / ATP

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29
Q

Which catabolic processes may have been used by cells on ancient Earth before free oxygen became available?

A

glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, CAC, and oxidative phosphorylation, using an electron acceptor other than oxygen

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30
Q

Do autotrophs undergo cellular respiration?

A

YES

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31
Q

A chloroplast’s membranes are surrounded by ______, which is analogous to the mitochondrial matrix - a dense fluid filled area.

A

stroma

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32
Q

Chloroplasts have ____ membrane (like mitochondria!).

A

2 - inner & outer

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33
Q

What is suspended w/ in the stroma of chloroplasts? It is made up of stacks called ______.

A

A 3rd membrane - thylakoids

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34
Q

Photosynthesis: CO2 gains protons and is therefore ______. H2O loses protons and is therefore ______.

A

reduced - oxidized

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35
Q

Since photosynthesis requires (light) energy, it is considered _______ and _______.

A

endergonic - non-spontaneous

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36
Q

In plants, ________, a source of electrons, acts as “reducing power” that can be passed along to an electron acceptor, reducing it.

A

NADPH

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37
Q

In the 1st phase of photosynthesis, called the Light Reactions, _____ energy is converted into ______ energy.

A

light - chemical

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38
Q

PS2 absorbs light energy, exciting the e’s entering the ETC. E’s are replaced w/ e’s taken from _____, producing ____ as a by-product.

A

water - O2

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39
Q

The light reactions in the thylakoid have produced 2 energy products: ATP and ______ that will then power production of sugar in the Calvin Cycle.

A

NADPH

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40
Q

What are the inputs of the Light Reaction phase? (4)

A

H2O, NADP+, ADP, light

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41
Q

What is the electron donor in the Light Reaction phase? What does it become oxidized to?

A

water - oxygen

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42
Q

Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of the electrons and H+ from water to an acceptor called _______, where they are temporarily stored.

A

NADP+

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43
Q

The light reactions use solar energy to reduce NADP+ to _________ by adding a pair of electrons along with an H+.

A

NADPH

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44
Q

Light reaction occurs in the _____ of the chloroplast, while the Calvin Cycle occurs in the ______.

A

thylakoids - stroma

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45
Q

In the Calvin cycle, the energy outputs from the light reactions (ATP and NADPH) are used to power the conversion of CO2 into the ____ _____.

A

sugar G3P

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46
Q

As soon as the chlorophyll electron is excited to a higher energy level, the ____(3)____ captures it; this is a redox reaction.

A

primary electron acceptor

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47
Q

What is the role of the reduced PS I primary electron acceptor in the light reactions?

A

reduction of NADP+ to NADPH

48
Q

In PS II (the first photosystem in the sequence), P680 is oxidized (which in turn oxidizes _____), and the PS II primary electron acceptor is reduced (which in turn reduces the _____ between the photosystems).

A

H2O - ETC

49
Q

In PS I, the PS I primary electron acceptor is reduced (which in turn reduces other compounds that ultimately reduce NADP+ to NADPH), and P700 is oxidized (which in turn oxidizes the _______ between the photosystems).

A

ETC

50
Q

Plants are classified as producers because they __(3)__ into organic molecules.

A

fix inorganic carbon

51
Q

Sunlight provides energy for _______, which occurs in chloroplasts. Photosynthesis produces ____ & _____ which are inputs for ___(2)___ in the mitochondria that produces __(2)__.

A

photosynthesis - O2 & sugar - cellular respiration - CO2 and ATP

52
Q

The main product of the Calvin Cycle?

A

G3P

53
Q

_________ (which is similar to oxidative phosphorylation) describes ATP production resulting from the capture of light energy by chlorophyll.

A

photophosphorylation

54
Q

C3 plants can conserve water by ___(2)___ when it is hot and dry out. However, this promotes _____. Conserving water simultaneously reduces the amount of _____ available to the plant.

A

closing stomata - photorespiration - CO2

55
Q

In C4 and CAM plants carbon dioxide is fixed in the _____ of mesophyll cells.

A

cytoplasm (near the stomata)

56
Q

In C3 and CAM plants carbon dioxide fixation and the __(2)__ occur in the same cells.

A

Calvin Cycle

57
Q

In plants, the Calvin Cycle (C3 cycle) takes place outside of the _____ in the ______.

A

thylakoids - stroma

58
Q

_______ pathways, consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones; they are called biosynthetic pathways.

A

anabolic

59
Q

Some metabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds. These processes are called ______ pathways, or breakdown pathways.

A

catabolic

60
Q

______ energy is kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules; ______ energy in transfer from one object to another is called heat.

A

Thermal x2

61
Q

Energy that is not kinetic is called _______ energy; it is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.

A

potential

62
Q

_______ energy is a term used by biologists to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction.

A

Chemical

63
Q

The energy of the universe is constant: Energy can be transferred/transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

A

1st law of thermodynamics

64
Q

Scientists use a quantity called _______ as a measure of molecular disorder, or randomness.

A

entropy

65
Q

Every energy transfer/transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe.

A

2nd law of thermodynamics

66
Q

A process that leads to a decrease in entropy is said to be ________: It will happen only if energy is supplied (water moving uphill takes work or an energy input!).

A

non-spontaneous

67
Q

A process that occurs w/o an overall input of energy; a process that is energetically favorable (water moving downhill).

A

spontaneous

68
Q

An exergonic or spontaneous reaction’s reactants have _____ free energy than their products. Is energy required or released (i.e., heat)? Delta G is ____ 0.

A

higher - released - less than

69
Q

An endergonic or nonspontaneous reaction’s reactants have _____ free energy than their products and ______ is required. Delta G is ____ 0.

A

lower - energy - greater than

70
Q

Going from monomers to a polymer (building up) is a ______ reaction.

A

endergonic/nonspontaneous/anabolic - less than

71
Q

______ represents the difference between the free energy of the final state and the free energy of the initial state.

A

delta G

72
Q

It is important to realize that the breaking of bonds does not release energy; it _______ energy. The phrase “energy stored in bonds” is shorthand for the potential energy that can be released when new bonds are formed after the original bonds break, as long as the products are of lower free energy than the reactants (exergonic/spontaneous).

A

requires

73
Q

The energy from hydrolysis of ATP (to ADP + Pi) may be coupled to _____ processes by the transfer of the ______ group.

A

endergonic - phosphate

74
Q

Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones and are ______.

A

endergonic

75
Q

Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds and are _____.

A

exergonic

76
Q

The key to coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions is the formation of this __(2)__, which is more reactive (less stable, with more free energy) than the original unphosphorylated molecule.

A

phosphorylated intermediate

77
Q

ATP synthesis from ADP + Pi ______ energy.

A

requires (nonspontaneous + endergonic)

78
Q

ATP hydrolysis to ADP + Pi ______ energy.

A

yields (exergonic + spontaneous)

79
Q

What can a cell do to make an endergonic reaction happen?

A

energy coupling & ATP is the key

80
Q

A key feature in the way cells manage their energy resources to do this work is energy coupling, the use of an _______ process to drive an ______ one. _____ is responsible for mediating most energy coupling in cells, and in most cases it acts as the immediate source of energy that powers cellular work.

A

exergonic (spont) - endergonic (non-spont) - ATP

81
Q

Is the free energy change (delta G value) altered by the use of an enzyme?

A

NO - the enzyme only lowers the activation energy

82
Q

Allosteric regulation or ________ is the term used to describe any case in which a protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to _______ site. This may either activate or inhibit its activity.

A

non-competitive - a separate

83
Q

The binding of an O2 molecule to one binding site increases the affinity for oxygen of the remaining binding sites. Thus, where oxygen is at high levels, such as in the lungs or gills, hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen increases as more binding sites are filled. This is an example of?

A

cooperativity

84
Q

One catabolic process, _______, is a partial degradation of sugars or other organic (containing C-H’s) fuel that occurs W/O oxygen.

A

fermentation

85
Q

The most efficient catabolic pathway is _______ respiration, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel (i.e., sugars).

organic molecules + O2 –> CO2 + H2O + energy
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 –> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP + heat)

A

aerobic

86
Q

Is the process of cellular respiration spontaneous or non-spontaneous?

A

spontaneous (breaking down something into smaller pieces = big to small or downhill)

87
Q

The loss of electrons from one substance to another?

A

oxidation

88
Q

Adding negatively charged electrons to an atom reduces the amount of positive charge of that atom and is why it’s called ______.

A

Reduction

89
Q

When CH4 reacts with O2, forming CO2, electrons end up shared less equally between the C atom and its new covalent partners, the oxygen atoms, which are very electronegative. In effect, the carbon atom has partially “lost” its shared electrons; thus, CH4 has been ________.

A

oxidized

90
Q

When something loses H+, it becomes ______ and when something gains H+, it becomes _____.

A

oxidized - reduced

91
Q

During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is ______ (CHO –> CO2) and O2 is ______ (O2 –> H2O).

A

oxidized - reduced

92
Q

ETC: Electrons removed from glucose are shuttled by ________ to the “top,” higher-energy end of the chain. At the “bottom,” lower-energy end, ________ captures these electrons along with hydrogen nuclei forming water.

A

NADH - oxygen

93
Q

Each “downhill” carrier is more electronegative than, and thus capable of oxidizing, its “uphill” neighbor, with oxygen at the bottom of the chain. Therefore, the electrons transferred from glucose to _____ reducing it to ______ fall down an energy gradient in the electron transport chain to a far more stable location in the electronegative oxygen atom.

A

NAD+ / NADH

94
Q

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

95
Q

The enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate? This happens during ______ in the cytoplasm and ______ in the mitochondria.

A

Substrate-level phosphorylation / glycolysis - CAC or Krebs Cycle

96
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation includes 2 parts - the _____ that sets up the proton gradient and __(2)__ which is the final step in generating ATP.

A

ETC - chemiosmosis (ATP synthase)

97
Q

Why are NADH & FADH2 higher energy (more potential energy) molecules than NAD+ & FAD?

A

because they are actively carrying the electrons

98
Q

What links glycolysis and the CAC?

A

oxidation of pyruvate (3C) to acetyl CoA (2C)

99
Q

Acetyl CoA feeds its _____ group into the ______ for further oxidation.

A

acetyl - CAC

100
Q

The INTERmembrane space is the space ______ the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane. The INNER membrane space is within the _____ ______.

A

between - lipid bilayer

101
Q

Where is the highest concentration of H+ located in the cell?

A

intermembrane space - between the outer and inner mito. membranes

102
Q

Under low oxygen conditions in oxidative phosphorylation, the ECT would ____ ____ and the proton gradient would _____, which means ATP synthase would _____.

A

shut down - stop - not be able to produce ATP

103
Q

In the ETC chain of anaerobic respiration in bacteria/archaea, the final electron acceptor is ______ such as _____ _____ and produces hydrogen sulfide.

A

non-oxygen / sulfate ion

104
Q

In fermentation, _____ molecules are used as electron acceptors and there is ______ degradation of sugars.

A

Pyruvate (ie organic molecules (C-H)) - partial

105
Q

In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ______ in two steps. The first step releases CO2 from the pyruvate, which is converted to the 2-C compound ______.

A

ethanol - acetaldehyde

106
Q

Why are the steps of the fermentation part critical to a cells energy production? 2 things

A

can still produce some ATP + recycle electron carrier (NADH oxidation back to NAD+ for glycolysis)

107
Q

On hot, dry days, C3 plants close their stomata. This keeps CO2 out and O2 in, leading to photorespiration. Rubisco binds _____ instead of _____, consuming ATP and releasing CO2 w/o producing ATP or ______.

A

O2 - CO2 - carbohydrates/sugars

108
Q

C4 plants are adapted to hot, dry climates. Even with their stomata partially/completely closed, they minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into 4C compounds in ______ cells. The 4C compounds are exported to _____ _____ cells where they release CO2 for use in the Calvin Cycle.

A

mesophyll - bundle-sheath

109
Q

CAM plants (cacti, aloe) are also adapted to hot, dry climates, but they differ from C4 plants by separating photosynthesis not into separate cells, but into….?

A

Temporal: Night - organic acid / Day - Calvin Cycle

110
Q

What are the 3 stages of the Calvin Cycle?

A

1) Carbon fixation 2) Reduction 3) Regeneration of RuBP

111
Q

The enzyme that catalyzes the 1st step in stage 1 of the Calvin Cycle?

A

RuBP or rubisco

112
Q

In stage 2 (reduction) of the Calvin Cycle, a pair of electrons from ______ reduce the ______ group to an aldehyde group, forming _____.

A

NADPH - carboxyl - G3P

113
Q

In stage 3 of the Calvin Cycle, the carbon skeletons of 5 molecules of G3P are _____ into 3 molecules of _____, which is now prepared to receive CO2 again.

A

rearranged - RuBP/rubisco

114
Q

The G3P output f/ the Calvin cycle becomes the starting material for metabolic pathways that synthesize ______.

A

glucose, sucrose, or other carbs

115
Q

How many G3Ps does it take to make 1 glucose molecule?

A

2 (G3P = 3Cs)

116
Q

What complex in the thylakoid membrane uses excited electrons to ultimately reduce NADP+ to NADPH?

A

PS I

117
Q

What is the embedded protein complex found in the thylakoid membrane that converts ADP to ATP using free energy from a flow of H+.

A

ATP synthase

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