Exam 2 Flashcards
body growth from 2-6 years:
- children become slimmer and more muscular
- growing over 3” and gaining 4.5 lbs per year
typical 6 year old weight and height
40-50 lbs and at least 3.5 ft tall
BMI lowest at:
age 5 or 6
young children tend to be:
picky eaters who insist on rituals
Just Right phenomenon
child’s insistence that a particular experience occur in an exact sequence and manner
when does just so insistence decline
after age 3
brain development: by age 6…
brain is 90% of its adult weight
brain developments: social understanding develops as…
prefrontal cortex matures and emotional control improves
corpus callosum myelinates rapidly from…
2-6 years
left handed child advantages
1 in 10 children
good for professions involving creativity and split-second timing (artists, musicians, sports stars)
left brain
notices details:
logical reasoning, detailed analysis, language
right brain
notices big picture:
emotional and creative
advances in maturation of the prefrontal cortex b/w ages 2 and 6 include:
- planning and thinking
- language
- social awareness
- attention and impulse control
- perseveration (getting stuck)
limbic system function
expression and regulation of emotions
parts of the limbic system
- amygdala: emotions
- hippocampus: memory
- hypothalamus: produces hormones in response
gross motor skills in early childhood
balance improves: run, jump, hop, skip
greater speed and endurance
fine motor skills in early childhood
self help: dressing, eating, tying shoes
drawing
what did eliminated lead to do children’s brain
lead shrinks childrens brains
when lead decreased, violent crimes of teens lowered
artistic expression changes in early childhood
age 2: scribbles
age 3: first representational forms (boundaries, people)
age 5-6: more realistic drawings
preoperational thinking
piaget:
- gains in symbolic thought (represent things in your head); make believe play, language
- limitations in thinking: centration (egocentrism), focus on appearance, static reasoning, irreversibility
centration
tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation the exclusion of others
ex: child insists that daddy is a father, not a brother
egocentrism
inability to consider another person’s point of view
- -> form of centration
example: piaget’s three mountain problem
piaget’s three mountain task
doll has a mountain in front of it, can’t see cross and house, but kids think doll can see what they see
focus on appearance
young children tend to focus only on what is apparent and ignore other relevant attributes
ex: child who thinks girl w/ short haircut must be boy
static reasoning
young children assume the world is unchanging
ex: boy surprised that his teacher is someone’s mother
irreversibility
ability to mentally reverse a series of steps, young children can’t recognize that reversing something restores it to original state
example: child won’t eat hamburger w/ lettuce, even after it’s been removed
conservation
physical traits of objects remain the same despite changes in appearance
-children not logical (about conservation) until age 7
preoperational thought: egocentric thought
- can adjust language to fit the level of the listener
- can take others’ perspectives in simple situations
preoperational thought: illogical thought
can think logically when the task is simplified and relevant to everyday life
preoperational thought: categorization
able to organize everyday knowledge into nested categories
preoperational thought: appearance vs reality
can solve appearance-related tasks in nonverbal ways or in a “game-like” setting
critique of preoperational stage
- piaget focused too much on preschoolers’ limitations and their ability to give verbal explanations
- tasks contained unfamiliar elements and ambiguous questions
bottom line of critique of preoperational stage
children show some elements of logical operations long before concrete operations
theory-theory
the idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories
theory of mind
a person’s theory of what other people may be thinking
- rarely develops before age 4
- ex: alison gopnik’s false-beliefs research (box of crayons w/ mms)
evans, xu, and lee (2011) study
3-5 y.o.s left alone w/ cup covering lots of candy
- 57% peeked under the cup
- only 1/4 told the truth, the rest lied
- older children are better liars and have more advanced theory of mind
development of theory of mind is influenced by
- maturation of prefrontal cortex
- language ability
- older siblings
- culture
language: early childhood is a ____ for language
sensitive period: time when language learning happens most easily
fast mapping
speedy and imprecise way in which children learn new words by mentally charting them into categories
by age 3, children show ___, but ____
extensive grammatical knowledge, but time, place, comparison words, and metaphors are difficult
overregularization
applying grammar rules even when exceptions occur
ex: he goed to the store
adults who master 2 language before….
age 6 experience lifelong brain benefits
language shift
sometimes children become fluent in the majority language at the expensive of native language (not good)
language: children from all backgrounds benefit from:
- code-focused teaching (a is for apple, etc.)
- book reading
- parent education
- language enhancement
- preschool programs
learning when and how to express emotions is a major developmental milestone between
ages 2 and 6
emotional regulation
ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
effortful control
ability to regulate one’s emotions and actions through effort, not just natural inclination
erikson’s theory: initiation vs guilt
characterized by a new sense of purposefulness as the child takes on new tasks
-typical 3-5 y.o. positive self concept and high self esteem
protective optimism
positive self concept and high self esteem, helps children try new things and persist at difficult tasks
developing emotional competence: b/w ages 2 and 6, children experience more ___ emotions
self conscious emotions (shame, guilt, embarrassment) and empathy
when does emotional self-regulation develop
3-4 y.o: have learned how to cope w/ and channel their emotions
emotional regulation develops as a result of
brain maturation and experience (prefrontal cortex)
emotional regulation is influenced by
- genes
- early experiences (especially stressors)
- culture
- brain maturation
- gender (girls earlier)
- attachment
marshmallow test
kids who held off eating had more success, better adjustment as adults
play….
- is universal
- changes b/w 2 and 6 years, becomes more complex and social
- provides practice in self-control, empathy, and social understanding
types of play (parten)
- solitary play: alone, unaware of nearby children
- onlooker play: watches other play
- parallel: play w/ similar toys, but not together
- associative: interact/share, but not mutual/reciprocal
- cooperative: play together, turn-taking
rough and tumble play
- mimics aggression w/ no intent to harm
- advances social understanding but increases likelihood of injury
- positively affects prefrontal cortex development
sociodramatic play
pretend play in which children act out self-created roles and themes
benefits of make believe play
- learn social skills/cooperation
- self control, perspective taking
- gains in language/literacy
- develop self-context
- improve attention, memory, reasoning
child rearing styles: diana baumrind found parents differed on four dimensions:
- expressions of warmth
- strategies for discipline
- communication
- expectations for maturity
child rearing styles: list
- authoritative
- authoritarian
- permissive
- neglectful/uninvolved
authoritative style
- high warmth and acceptance
- high levels of communication b/w child and parent
- moderate expectations for maturity
- discipline strategies involve lots of discussion (firm but fair)
authoritarian style
- little warmth and acceptance
- one way communication (parent->child)
- very high expectations for maturity
- high in coercive control (strict, physical)
permissive style
- high levels of warmth and acceptance
- high levels of communication
- few/no expectations for maturity
- little or no discipline
neglectful/uninvolved style
- low on acceptance and involvement
- little/no control
- general indifference regarding autonomy granting
outcome of authoritarian parenting
raise obedient and quiet, but not especially happy children (guilty, blame themselves, rebel as teens)
outcome of permissive parenting
raise children who lack self-control and are least happy (live at home through early adulthood)
authoritative parenting outcome
raise children who are successful, articulate, generous, and happy
outcome of neglectful/uninvolved parenting
raise children who are immature, sad, lonely, at risk for injury/abuse
3 way interaction influences outcome of any parenting style:
- child’s temperament
- parent’s personality
- social context
respeto and carina
mexican american mothers didn’t use physical punishment or harsh threats, children comply and respect elders
gender typing
process of developing gender roles or gender-linked preferences and behaviors valued by society
gender identity
an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine
theories of gender identity: social learning
behavior (modeling and reinforcement) leads to gender identity
theories of gender identity:
cognitive developmental
self-perceptions (gender constancy) guide behavior, cognitive understanding that sex is biologically based and permanent
theories of gender identity:
gender schema
combines social learning and cognitive developmental thoeries
gender beliefs: by age 2, children…
label themselves and others in terms of their sex
preferences for same-sex playmates by age
3
by age 6 ____ in play patterns is very pronounced
gender segregation
research suggests that ______ in gender typing than girls
more rigid
ex: verbally expressed preferences, stereotypes/flexibility, cross-sex behavior
influences on gender typing
- genetic: evolutionary adaptiveness, hormones
- environmental: family, teachers, peers, social/culture
parent’s role in gender typing
- direct verbal comments about expectations
- differentially reinforce various activities
- treat and supervise children differently
channeling
differential encouragement of toys, activities, and chores
middle childhood years
ages 7-11
generally happy healthy time of life
what causes obesity?
- overweight parents
- low SES
- poor eating habits
- low physical activity
- fast food and supersizing
- TV and screen time
average american child spends ____ on screens
3-4 hours a day
positive association b/w TV and obesity
mechanism behind relationship b/w obesity and TV
- Screen time displaces physical activity
- increased consumption of food while watching TV
- advertising fast food
- reduction in resting metabolism
brain development middle childhood
-increasing maturation results in a highly interconnected brain by age 7/8
selective attention
ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others; improves markedly around age 7
increasing myelination…
reduces RT from birth to about age 16
achievement vs aptitude tests
- achievement: measure what has been learned
- aptitude: measure one’s potential (IQ)
flynn effect
over last 100 years, average 1Q scores of nations has risen substantially
criticisms of IQ testing
- tests are culturally biased
- person’s potential is not fixed, changes w/ time
- IQ tests ignore other types of intelligence
sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence
- analytical intelligence: apply strategies
- creative: solve novel problems
- practical intelligence: adapt to demands of everyday life
gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
- linguistic
- logical-mathematical
- musical
- spatial
- bodily-kinesthetic
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal
- naturalistic
- spiritual/existential
what do IQ tests tell us
- help detect learning disabilities, giftedness
- predicts school achievement
- however, factors like growth mindset may be better predictors of life success than IQ tests
autism
developmental disorder, difficulty w/ social communication and interaction
restricted, repetitive patterns
possible causes of autism
- more common in boys
- genes
- teratogens
- viruses, infections, pesticides, drugs
concrete operational stage (piaget)
7-11 years
characterized by more logical, flexible, and organized though (but limited to direct experiences/perceptions)
classification
ability to organize things into groups
-by end of middle childhood, there is greater awareness of classification hierarchies
piaget’s class inclusion problem
children asked if there are more yellow daffodils or more flowers
before age 8, children say more daffodils
after age 8, children say more flowers (correct)
transitive interference
ability to infer an unspoken connection b/w one fact and another
seriation
knowledge that things can be arranged in a logical series (eg number sequencing)
development of mapping skills
- preschool: landmarks
- age 8-10: landmarks along organized route of travel
- end of middle childhood: overall view of large-scale space
unlike piaget, vygotsky believed
that culture shapes cognition
evidence that culture affects content and method of learning
study by silva:
- sibling pairs, half were mexican americans, half were indigenous, not used to american culture
- indigenous siblings watched other build toy
- american siblings learned by direct instruction
cognition becomes ___ in middle childhood
more efficient
3 parts of memory
sensory register, working memory, long term memory
speed of processing increases during…
the first 2 decades of life
knowledge base
body of knowledge in a particular subject area that makes it easier to master new concepts
what determines size of knowledge base
past experience, current opportunity, and personal motivation
ex: pokemon study
control processes (executive processes)
regulate the analysis and flow of information w/in the information processing system
cognitive processes include
- selective attention
- emotional regulation
- metacognition (thinking about thinking)
- metamemory (knowing about memory)
gender differences in school performance
- internationally, girls better than boys in verbal skills, differences in math narrowed/disappeared
- girls get higher grades overall
- at puberty, girls’ grades dip, esp in science
finland education
- children learn together, no tracking
- no child designated for special education
- no system wide testing until high school
four psychosocial challenges of middle childhood
- challenge to achieve
- challenge of self-understanding
- challenge of peer relationships
- challenge of family relationships
erikson’s theory: industry vs inferiority
industry: develop sense of competence and willingness to achieve
inferiority: lack of confidence in own ability to do things well
changes in self-esteem in middle childhood
-self esteem declines (before rising after 4th grade) as children develop more realistic sense of self
self esteem hierarchically structured:
- academic
- social
- physical competence
- physical appearance
culture of children
habits, styles, values, and rules that set children apart from adult society
role of peers
- offer sociability and sense of belonging
- help shape definitions of self
- provide opportunities for leanring
friendship
mutually agreed-on relationship in which loyalty, intimacy, and trust are defining features
social cognition
ability to understand social interactions (key to popularity)
peer acceptance predicts
both current and future psychological adjustment
five categories of social acceptance
- popular
- average
- controversial
- rejected
- neglected
popular-prosocial children
at every age are well-liked bc they are kind, trustworthy, and cooperative
popular-antisocial children
are athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant, aggressive; emerge around fifth grade
aggressive-rejected children
are disliked bc of antagonist, confrontational, and impulsive behavior
withdrawn rejected children
disliked bc of passive and socially awkward behavior
combat ready example
withdrawn-rejected: thought it was done on purpose or accident, but ignored situation
aggressive-rejected: respond aggressively
bullying can include
- physical
- verbal
- relational (destroying peer acceptance)
- cyberbullying
victims of bullying tend to be
- withdrawn-rejected (passive and physically weak) w/o friends
- some aggressive-rejected children are bullied
who are the bullies
- high status and powerful
- socially perceptive but lack empathy
family factors associated w/ bullying
- parental hostility
- lack of parental monitoring
- tolerance of aggressive behavior
- exposure to marital conflict or violence
- physical abuse
- hostile siblings
family structure
refers to the legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in same household (nuclear, stepfamilies, single parent)
more important than who lives w/ a child is
family function: the way a family works to meet the needs of its members
___ and ___ impair family functioning
low income and high conflict
children of divorce/remarriage experience what problems
- peer/romantic relationships
- academic failure
- early sexual activity
- delinquency/substance abuse
short term fall out of divorce
- instability/conflict
- drop in family income
- parental stress/disorganization
long term fall out of divorce
- improved adjustment after 2 years
- boys and children w/ difficult temperament at greater risk
divorce and remarriage: what matters
- quality of parent-child relationships
- process of going through divorce matters
- exposure to marital conflict and stress matter a lot
blended families: mother-stepfather
- boys adjust quickly, girls not as well
- older children and teens of both sexes display more problems
- stepfather-stepdaughter relationship most conflicted
blended families: father-stepmother
- reduced father-child contact
- children in fathers’ custody react negatively
- girls and stepmothers slow to get along at first, more positive later
