Exam 1 Flashcards
5 characteristics of development
multidirectional multicontextual multicultural multidisciplinary plasticity
critical period
time when a particular type of developmental growth must happen if it’s ever going to happen
sensitive period
time when a certain development is most likely to happen (ex: language)
different patterns of developmental growth
growth in stages
linear growth
growth and decline
unpredictable growth
historical context: cohort
refers to all people born around the same time who experience the same historical events and cultural shifts
SES
combination of income, education, occupation, and neighborhood characteristics
culture
shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, expectations
ethnic group
people whose ancestors were born in the same region and often share a language, culture, and religion
race
group of people who are regarded by themselves or others distinct based on physical appearance
difference-equals-deficit error
if someone is different than me, they must be less than
plasticity
the possibility of change
human traits can be molded/shaped while people maintain a durability of identity
plasticity example: david
born with premature disabilities but enriching environment allowed him to thrive
differential susceptibility
some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences (ie genetics)
parts of scientific method
formulate research question develop hypothesis test hypothesis draw conclusions make findings available
common research methods
scientific observation (naturalistic vs observatory)
experiment
survey
case study
cross sectional study
examines groups of people of different ages at the same point of time
longitudinal study
data collected repeatedly on the same individuals over time
cross sequential study
studies several groups of people of different ages then follows those groups longitudinally
developmental theory
systematic statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding how/why people change over time
theories do what
produce hypotheses
generate discoveries
offer practical guidelines
3 important theories
psychoanalytic theory
behaviorism (learning theory)
cognitive theory
psychoanalytic theory
behavior motivated by unconscious drives
dreams reflect unconscious mind
defense mechanisms
sexuality major motivating force
id ego superego
id: what you want (pleasure principle)
ego: what you actually do (impulse control)
superego: what you should do (moral ideal)
freud psychosexual stages
oral anal phallic latency genital
erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
8 stages characterized by a developmental crisis, spans lifetime
operant conditioning: reinforcement vs punishment
reinforcement: makes behavior more likely
punishment: makes behavior less likely
Bandura social learning theory
behavior learned through observation and imitation
bobo doll experiment
piaget’s cognitive development theory: stages
sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational
piaget: cognitive disequilibirum
a state of disequilibrium results in cognitive growth
assimilation
incorporate new info into existing schemas
accommodation
alter existing schemas to include new info
the emergent theories
sociocultural theory
universal perspective (evolutionary theory)
ecological systems theory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
development results from the dynamic interaction b/w the person and their culture
guided participation
children learn culturally meaningful skills from more knowledgeable members of society
zone of proximal development
range of skills learner can perform w/ assistance but not independently
evolutionary theory
humans are driven by basic need to survive and reproduce
evolutionary theory: cramer et al
women bothered more by partner having deep emotional connection
men bothered more by partner having sex
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
the interaction b/w individual and the changing environment is key
microsystem mesosystem exosystem macrosystem chronosystem
microsystem: immediate environment, family, school, peers
mesosystem: interactions among microsystems
exosystem: larger community setting
macrosystem: cultural values, laws
chronosystem: change over life course and history
additive heredity
genetic effects add up to create the phenotype (ex: skin color, height)
genetic imprinting
some genes function differently depending on which parent they come from
chemical marker activates either mother or father’s gene
copy number variation
involves genes with repeats or deletions of base pairs
non-shared environment & adolescent development (NEAD) project: major finding
genes impact every characteristic, but family structure and parenting style modify genes
___ is most common correlate of chromosomal abnormalities
maternal age
trisomy 21
down syndrome
facial features: thick tongue, slanted eyes
physical problems
mental slowing and faster aging
eclectic perspective
apply aspects of each theory rather than just picking one
3 stages of prenatal development
germinal (0-2 wks)
embryonic (3-8 wks)
fetal (9 wks-birth)
germinal period
- conception in fallopian tubes
- cell differentiation/multiplication (blastocyst, embryonic disk (fetus) and trophoblast (placenta/umbilical cord) form)
- implantation
embryonic period
embryonic disk forms:
- ectoderm: neural tube/CNS
- mesoderm: bone, connective tissue
- endoderm: GI, lungs, etc
fetal period
growth and finishing phase 1st trimester (fetus 3mo, 3oz, 3in) 2nd trimester (quickening/feeling moving) 3rd trimester (brain maturation)
age of viability
age baby can survive if born early
22 weeks
weight crude predictor, critical factor is brain maturation
teratogen
anything that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects/death
factors determining risk of teratogens
- timing of exposure (critical period most vulnerable)
- amount of exposure (threshold and interactions)
- genetic vulnerability
examples of specific teratogens
illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol (FAS), infectious disease
FAS
heavy drinking (5+ per day) causes severe cognitive, physical, behavioral deficits
3 stages of labor
- dilation and effacement of cervix
- delivery of baby
- delivery of placenta
other maternal factors affecting prenatal risk
nutrition, stress, maternal age
doula
someone who helps a women with labor, delivery, and breastfeeding
APGAR scale
appearance (color) pulse grimace (reflexes) activity (muscle tone) respiration
average birth weight and height
7.5 lbs and 20 inches
low birth weight (LBW)
less than 5.5 lbs
preterm
baby born 2 or more weeks early
may be appropriate weight for length of pregnancy
small for gestational age (SGA)
may be born at due date or preterm
below expected weight for length of pregnancy
possible causes of LBW
lifestyle choices malnutrition multiple births prescription drugs other unknown causes
La Familia support
social/cultural context critical for prenatal/postnatal development
mexican mothers w/ high la familia support linked to fewer LBW births
immigrant paradox
immigrant women have healthier babies (bc of support they have)
parental alliance
cooperative working relationship b/w partners is important for prenatal/postnatal care
head sparing
when nutrition is poor, the brain keeps growing
influences on early growth
heredity
nutrition
emotional well being
benefits of breast feeding
baby: correct balance of fat/protein, nutritional completeness, protection against disease
mother: reduced risk of breast cancer, osteoporosis
how much do newborns sleep
15-17+ hours a day
most sleep through night by 1 yo
sleep needs decline to 12 hrs by age 2
co sleeping pros and cons
pros: easier response time, less exhaustion, more convenient
cons: higher SIDS rate, parents may not sleep well later
how much do newborns cry
2-3 hours a day
peaks at 6 weeks before declining w/ maturation of CNS
transient exuberance
rapid proliferation of new neural connections in infancy
synaptic pruning
makes the brain more efficient by eliminating underused connections
fusiform face area
part of the brain dedicated to face perception
babies primed to look at faces
own race ffect
babies recognize faces from own race more easily than other races
Scott and Monesson face recognition experiment
when names were attributed to monkeys faces, babies distinguished monkeys’ faces easier later on
experience-expectant brain functions require:
basic common experiences
ex: no matter where an infant lives, an infant hears sounds/language
experience-dependent brain functions depend on:
exposure to particular events
ex: exposure to particular sounds/language varies across infants
sensitive periods in brain development example
children raised in romanian orphanages and adopted later by british families:
- dramatic catch up in physical size once adopted
- cognitive gains not as great for children adopted after 6 months
- longer length in orphanage, more defects
sensation ___ perception
precedes
sensation vs perception
sensation: when a sensory system detects a stimulus
perception: mental processing of sensory info
infant senses: hearing
not good at birth
newborns react to sudden noises
infants prefer a human voice
infant senses: vision
least mature sense at birth
binocular vision develops around 3 months
adult vision by 1 yo
hearing milestones
2 mo: locate/orient to sounds
4-7 mo: sense of musical phrasing
6-8 mo: screen out sounds from other languages
7-9 mo: recognize familiar words
vision milestones
2-3 mo: focus and color vision, binocular vision
6 mo: acuity, scanning, tracking
6-7 mo: depth perception
1 yr: 20/20 vision
infant senses: touch
sensitivity to touch is very acute at birth
touch stimulates physical and emotional growth
infant senses: taste and smell
newborns prefer sweet over sour or bitter
prefer the smell of their lactating mother
milestones in face perception
0-1 mo: prefer simple, face like pattern
2-4 mo: prefer complex face patterns, distinguish strange from familiar face, prefer mothers face
5-12 mo: perceive emotional expressions on faces
intermodal perception
ability to integrate simultaneous input from multiple sensory systems by perceiving objects as unified wholes
amodal sensory properties
info that overlaps 2 or more sensory systems
babies like to focus on these times of stimuli
milestones in intermodal perception
birth: detect amodal sensory properties
3-4 mo: relate speech sounds to lip movement
4-6 mo: perceive unique face-voice pairings of unfamiliar adults
survival reflexes
breathing, hiccups, sneezing (oxygen)
crying, shivering, tucking legs (body temp)
sucking, rooting, swallowing (feeding)
gross motor vs fine motor skills
gross: actions that involve large body movements
fine: actions that involve small body movements
moro reflex
startle reflex
palmar reflex
grasp anything placed in hand
Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
0-2 y.o’s actively think w/ their senses and motor skills
cognitive change takes place via adaptation and organization
schemas
psychological structures that organize one’s experiences
adaptation
process of building schemas through direct interaction w/ the environment (assimilation and accommodation)
organization
internal process of rearranging and linking schemas
name the 6 sensorimotor substages
reflexive schemas primary circular reactions secondary circular reactions (2 steps) tertiary circular reactions mental representations
substages 1/2 of sensorimotor intelligence
primary circular reactions (infant’s responses to own body):
-substage 1 (0-1m): newborn reflexes
substage 2 (1-4m): first acquired adaptations
substages 3/4 of sensorimotor intelligence
secondary circular reactions (infant’s responses to objects/people):
- substage 3 (4-8m): making interesting sights last
- substage 4 (8-12m): new adaptations and anticipation, goal directed behavior, object permanence
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
8 months
renee baillargeon and violation of expectation method
habituation: babies look at things they did not expect longer (they expect the world works a certain way)
showed that object permanence emerges before 8 months
substages 5/6 of sensorimotor intelligence
tertiary circular reactions (creative exploration/experimentation):
- substage 5 (12-18m): active experimentation, little scientist
- substage 6 (18m-2y): mental representation, make believe play
piaged revised, what do advanced research tools (habituation, fMRI) indicate
many cognitive abilities emerge earlier than piaget predicted
current research suggests that cognitive development is:
gradual
continuous
uneven
information processing theory
uses computer model of human cognition
focus is on step-by-step description of mechanisms underlying human cognition (affordances, memory)
affordances
opportunities in the environment for perception and interaction
affordances depend on
sensory awareness of opportunities
immediate needs and motivation
developmental level (maturation)
past experiences
visual cliff: gibson and walk
examined infant depth perception
infants willing to cross cliff until 8 months, crawlers avoided it
–> fear of heights NOT emergence of depth perception
infantile amnesia
refers to notion that we rarely remember events before age 3
why don’t we remember prior to age 3
theory of mind and sense of self
neurogenesis of hippocampus
autobiographical memory linked to verbal abilities
magic shrinking machine: simcock and hayne
studied 2-4 y.o.
children nonverbal memory good
under age 3, could not describe shrinking experience
verbal recall increased sharply b/w 3 and 4 y.o
very young infants (< 3 months) can remember if:
experimental conditions are real life
motivation is high
special measures aid memory retrieval (eg repetition and reminder)
operant conditioning and memory study
3 and 6 m.o kick and move mobile
1 week later, infants started kicking immediately, indicating memory
2 weeks after, only 6 m.o. babies remembered (3 mo remembered if reminded)
theories of language development
1: infants need to be taught (behaviorism)
2: social impulses foster language (social pragmatic)
3. infants teach themselves (universal grammar)
What did BF skinner argue about language
infants learn language via operant conditioning and imitation
parents are teachers, repetition is instructive, and well taught infants become well spoken children
Tamis-LeMonda et al.
infants of parents who spoke more had superior language development
Social pragmatic perspective of language
babies acquire language to communicate as social beings
social content of speech is universal
what did noam chomsky argue about language
language is too complex to be learned through step-by-step conditioning
language is innate -> prewired w/ language acquisition device (LAD) in brain
universal sequence of language
cooing babbling first words naming explosion first two-word sentences multiword sentences
cooing and babbling
6-9 mo: babies repeat consonant vowel combinations called babbling
experience expectant learning (all babies do it)
First words
comprehension precedes production
first words appear around 1 year
holophrase
a single word that expresses an entire thought (eg juice)
naming explosion
language spurt
around 18 mo
first sentences
by 21 mo, two word sentences (telegraphic speech) grammatically correct (eg more juice)
child directed speech (CDS)
motherese
high pitched exaggerated expression
short sentences/phrases
simplification
interactive activities that facilitate language
joint attention
turn taking games
preverbal gestures
erikson’s first two psychosocial stages
trust vs mistrust: infants learn trust if world is secure place/basic needs met
autonomy vs shame/doubt: gain sense of self rule over their actions/bodies
ethnotheory
a child rearing theory that is embedded w/in a particular culture/ethnic group
keller et al. 2004 findings
Nso vs Greek parents
Nso proximal, Greek distal
Nso toddlers didn’t recognize self in mirror but were compliant
Greek toddlers opposite
Basic emotions in first year
happiness: social smile (6w), laughter (2-4m)
anger: general distress (birth), anger (4-8m)
fear: stranger wariness, separation anxiety (9-14m)
self conscious emotions
when do they emerge
shame embarrassment guilt envy pride emerge second year as toddlers become aware of self as separate/unique
self awareness
realization that one is a unique person separate from others
emerges around 15-18m
dot-of-rouge experiment
temperament
inborn differences b/w one person and another in emotions, activity, and self control
both genes/child rearing practices affect temperament (epigenetic)
new york longitudinal study on temperament
easy, difficult, slow to warm up, unclassified
different kinds of temperament
effortful control: able to regulate attention and emotion, self-soothe
negative mood: fearful, angry, unhappy
exuberant: active, social, not shy
goodness-of-fit
the match b/w the child’s temperament and the environment
environment has effect on temperament
temperament and attachment study findings
highly irritable infants who were securely attached were more social and just as adept at exploration as other toddlers
all infants insecurely attached were less social/skilled at exploring
synchrony
coordinated interaction b/w caregiver and infant that starts process of attachment
critical for socioemotional development
still face technique: montirosso et al.
mothers face goes flat
socially engaged babies go back to normal soon after
disengaged babies take long to return to normla
negatively engaged stay very upset
internal working model
a set of expectations formed early in life about the emotional availability of attachment figures
strange situation: key behaviors
seeking (or avoiding) proximiting maintaining (or resisting) contact level of infant distress ease of comforting upon reunion ability to use PCG as secure
attachment classifications
A: insecure-avoidant
B: secure
C: insecure-resistant
D: disorganized/disoriented
Type B secure attachment
explores toys
cries when parent leaves
happy to see return
positive long term outcomes
Type A insecure-avoidant attachment
explores toys
does not cry when parent leaves
avoids/ignores when returns
lonely/depressed in adulthood
Type C insecure-resistant attachment
little/no exploration of toys
cries when parent leaves
stays upset when returns
adult relationships angry/unpredictable
Type D disorganized attachment
stumbles over toys
stilling (deer in headlights)
often physically abused
factors that affect attachment
opportunity for attachment
quality of caregiving
infant characteristics
parents’ internal working models
adult attachment interview (AAI)
anxious-avoidant –> dismissing
secure –> secure
anxious-resistant –> preoccupied
AAI classifications: secure
objective evaluation of childhood experiences
AAI classifications: dismissing
lack of memories and stereotypes descriptions
derogation of attachment
AAI classifications: preoccupied
conflicted and confused discourse
passivity or involved anger
