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Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Integument

A
  • an organ system
  • external covering on the outside of the animal
  • > skin, coat, glands, scales, feathers, hair/fur
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2
Q

Functions of integument

A
  • First line of defense between the animal and the environment
  • protects from Water, oxygen, heat, nutrients, pathogens, teeth, claws, ultraviolet rays
  • Helps regulate body temperature
  • Communicates information
  • Sensory Organ
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3
Q

Integument of Amphibia

A
  • usually smooth and moist
  • skin is occasionally shed
  • no claws and no scales
  • skin is highly permeable
  • > downside that it lets anything in such as pesticides, pollution, etc
  • aposematic coloration is common
  • > boldly colored to advertise warning
  • critical for:
    1. gas exchange
    2. salt balance (osmoregulation)
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4
Q

Glands in Amphibia

A
  1. Mucous Glands
    - produce mucous for MOISTURE
    - some are specialized for COMMUNICATION during courtship and can produce pheromones
  2. Granular Glands
    - produce poison for DEFENSE
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5
Q

Venomous vs Poisonous

A
  1. Venom is injected
  2. Poison is transferred
    - ingestion
    - inhalation
    - physical contact
    - > skin to skin
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6
Q

The Poison Dart Frogs

A
  • amphibia
  • Family Dendrobatidae
  • over 300 species
  • toxins are secreted from granular glands in the skin and some are deadly
  • some species are used in the pharmaceutical industry to create powerful painkillers
  • > non-addictive alternative to opioids
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7
Q

Integument of Reptilia

A
  • usually dry
  • scales are made of keratin or thickened skin
  • > minimizes water loss
  • major function of scales is protection
  • all are occasionally shed
  • feet always have claws
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8
Q

Glands of Reptilia

A
  • far fewer glands than any other Class in Tetrapoda
    1. Scent glands
  • pheromones for COMMUNICATION
  • smell for DEFENSE
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9
Q

Integument of Aves

A
  • skin is very thin, loose and dry except for the feet
  • > helps them fly
  • prone to water loss
  • muscles run to skin
  • > unlike herps
  • feet are covered in thicker skin made of keratin
  • digits always have claws
  • all have feathers made of keratin
  • > strong and waterproof
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10
Q

Glands of Aves

A
  • no sweat glands
  • > evaporative cooling through respiration
    1. Preen Glands at the base of the tail
  • produces oil
  • > use bill to spread over the body
  • nourishes skin and feathers
  • waterproofing
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11
Q

Function of Feathers in Aves

A
  • all have feathers made of keratin
    -> water proof and strong
  • feather structure and arrangement varies by species
  • numerous specialized functions of feathers
    1. insulation
    2. assist with flight
    3. Mate attraction
    4. Make sounds
    5. Muffle sounds
    6. Amplifying sounds
    7. Tactile Sensations
    etc.
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12
Q

Feather structure in Aves

A
  1. Rachis
    - central shaft
  2. Barbs
    - extend from rachis
  3. Barbules
    - from neighboring barbs interlock
    - in flight feathers, forms a strong flexible surface
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13
Q

Feather arrangement in Aves

A
  • the collection of all feather’s on a birds body is called a plumage
  • differs among species
  • often differs with age and sex
  • can also vary with season and condition (habitat quality)
  • birds experience ontogenetic changes in plumage
  • > Ontogeny is the course of development of an individual organism from the time of fertilization through maturity
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14
Q

How does the replacement of feathers occur in Aves

A
  • replacement of feathers occurs through molt
  • > molt is the process of shedding and regenerating feathers
  • molt occurs ontogenetically
  • can also occur seasonally or annual because feathers wear out
  • molt is energetically demanding
  • > a plumage can weight 2-3 times more than their skeleton
  • > food availability during molt can influence plumage quality
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15
Q

Molt Process in Aves

A
  • blood flow is supplied to new feathers
  • > pin feathers
  • > damage can cause serious bleeding
  • blood flow is shut off to new feathers
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16
Q

Basic Plumage in Aves vs Alternate Plumage

A
  1. All species have Basic Plumage
    - replaced annually
    - always displayed during the non-breeding season
  2. Some species also have Alternate Plumage
    - replaced seasonally (spring/summer)
    - often more colorful
    - > if a male is trying to attract a mate will have a bold plumage
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17
Q

Integument of Mammalia

A
  • all have hair or fur on some part of their body
  • > dead cells made of keratin
  • Pelage is the collection of hair/fur on the body
  • have thicker skin than most other Tetrapods
  • skin is the largest organ in the body
  • thicker skin insulates better, but is less sensitive than thin skin
  • counter-shading is common in mammal pelages
  • > darker color on back and lighter underside
  • > purpose is for camouflage
  • have more types of skin glands than any other Tetrapod group
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18
Q

Function of Hair/Fur in Mammalia

A
  • in most species, the major function is insulation
  • > have thick underfur covered with guard hairs
  • > trap warm/cool air against body
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19
Q

Vibrissae in Mammalia

A
  • specialized hairs (whiskers) used for tactile sensations
  • most mammals have them
  • packed with nerve sensors
  • > can detect touch or low frequency sounds
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20
Q

Molt in Mammalia

A
  • mammals undergo molt for the same reasons as birds
    1. Graduate from juvenile to adult pelage
    2. Seasonal changes for camouflage
    3. Replace a worn/faded pelage
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21
Q

Glands in Mammalia

A
  1. Sweat Glands
    - watery excretion that aids in cooling
    - > in some species restricted to feet or ventrum
  2. Sebaceous Glands
    - oily/waxy secretions that lubricate and nourish skin and hair
    - associated with hair follicles
  3. Mammary Glands
    - unique to mammals
    - nourishment for young
    - fosters social bonds
    - usually only females have them, but some male fruit bats lactate
  4. Scent Glands
    - located in various places on the body
    - Anal: carnivores
    - Pre-orbital: near the eye; ungulates produce pheromones
    - Leg: ungulates
    - > used to attract mates, communication and defense
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22
Q

Vision in Herpetofauna

A
  • reptile and amphibian eyes have rod cells and cone cells
  • rod cells sense light and dark
  • cone cells sense color
  • > the proportion of rod to cone cells varies by species, therefore so does the sensitivity to color
  • > some species can even see UV light
  • Parietal (3rd) Eyes
  • > function is poorly understood
  • > light/dark sensitive
  • Nictitating Membranes
  • > third eyelid in many herps and some birds
  • > for protection when submerged
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23
Q

Vision in Aves

A
  • birds have a highly developed color vision
  • they can see Ultraviolet (UV) Light
  • > Many plumages and other substances reflect UV light
  • can see magnetic fields
  • > assists with migration
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24
Q

Vision in Mammalia

A
  • a primary sense for many species

- rod and cone proportions varies amongst many species, therefore so does the degree of color perception

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25
Q

Auditory Senses in Herpetofauna

A
  • quality of hearing varies amongst species
  • all have an inner ear capable of hearing vibrations
  • some species have an outer ear and can hear very well
  • Frogs and Toads have a Tympanum, or an external ear drum
  • Crocodilians have an outer ear that they can open and close
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26
Q

Auditory Senses in Aves

A
  • ear is usually hidden by feathers
  • hearing is comparable to humans
  • many birds can also hear lower frequency sounds
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27
Q

Auditory Senses in Mammalia

A
  • have external structures called Pinnae
  • > function to amplify and determine the direction of the origin of a sound
  • some species have muscular control
  • range of frequencies that species can hear varies
    1. Infrasonic - low frequencies
  • allows for long distance communication in elephants
    2. Ultrasonic - high frequencies
  • echolocation in bats and marine animals
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28
Q

Olfactory Reception in Amphibia

A
  • Smell and Chemoreceptors are important for communication
  • Many have specialized organs that develop seasonally to detect pheromones
  • Ex: nasal cirri in some salamanders
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29
Q

Olfactory Reception in Reptilia

A
  • snakes and lizards have very well developed vomeronasal organs
  • > also called VMO, or Jacobson’s Organs
  • > they are not found in Turtles or Crocodilians
30
Q

Olfactory Senses in Aves

A
  • greatly varies amongst species
31
Q

Olfactory Senses in Mammalia

A
  • linked to sense of taste in mammals
  • many have vomeronasal organs
  • sensitive to pheromones
  • initiates the Flehman Response
  • greatly reduced, or absent in primates
32
Q

Class Amphibia Characteristics

A
  • amphi = double
  • bios = life
  • most have an aquatic and terrestrial phase
  • larvae are usually aquatic
  • adults are more terrestrially
33
Q

Three Taxonomic Orders in Class Amphibia

A
  1. Anura (Salienta)
    - frogs and toads
  2. Caudata (Urodela)
    - Salamanders and Newts
  3. Gymnophonia (Apoda)
    - Caecelians
34
Q

Order Anura, or Salienta Diversity and Distribution

A
  • includes all frogs and toads
  • toads have drier skin and are less aquatic
  • most abundant Order of amphibians
  • > 6000 of the 7000 species
  • found in every continent except Antartica
  • greatest diversity in South America
35
Q

Order Caudata, or Urodela Diversity and Distribution

A
  • includes all salamanders and newts
  • about 600 species
  • none in Australia or Antartica
  • highest diversity in the southeastern US Appalachian Mountains
36
Q

Order Gymnophonia, or Apoda Diversity and Distribution

A
  • includes Caecelians
  • were originally thought to be related to snakes
  • > elongated bodies and are legless
  • they are fossorial meaning they burrow and have an underground lifestyle
  • a few are aquatic
  • about 200 species
  • > probably underestimated
  • restricted to the tropic (s. america, asia and africa)
  • highest diversity is in South America
  • none in the US
37
Q
  1. What part of the world are highest in amphibian species richness?
  2. Which areas of Earth lack amphibians all together?
  3. What do you think explains the trends in where amphibians occur and where the most species occur?
  4. Patterns in the US where amphibians are common
A
  1. Rainforests and South America (Ecuador)
    - South America (Ecuador) is the global HOTSPOT of amphibian biodiversity
  2. North Africa (major deserts), Middle East and Central Asia
  3. Moisture, freshwater and warm temperatures
  4. most common in southeastern US, less common in cold and dry areas
38
Q

How many species of amphibians are there on Earth today?

A
  • 7000 species
39
Q

Order Anura, or Salienta Morphology

A
  • all have 4 limbs
  • hind limbs are longer than forelimbs
  • Dorsolateral ridge
  • > raised ridges running along their back
  • > usually start behind the eye and can extend to the groin
  • Tympanum
  • > visible eardrum on many frogs
  • Parotid Glands
  • > raised concentration of granular glands possessed by many toads that produce poison
  • > usually shaped like kidney beans and connect to cranial ridges
40
Q

Order Anura Morphology: Trends in North American Anurans

- frogs vs toads

A
  1. Frogs
    - long and slim
    - usually smooth and slimy
    - no parotid glands
    - lay eggs in masses
  2. Toads
    - short and stout
    - often dry and bumpy/warty
    - usually raised parotid gland behind the eye
    - lay eggs in long chains
41
Q

Order Anura: Life Stages

A
  • most have three distinct life stages and go through metamorphosis
    1. Egg
  • are always jelly-like
  • laid in water/wet substrate
  • if they dry out they die
    2. Larvae
  • live in water
  • gills
  • develop hind legs first
  • tail is gradually absorbed
  • diet transitions from herbivorous to carnivorous
    3. Adult
  • more terrestrial
  • multiple modes of breathing
42
Q

Order Anura Modified Lifecycle

A
  • a few species have a modified life cycle
  • Direct Development
  • > metamorphosis takes place in the egg
  • > hatchlings are miniature adults
  • > larvae are never free living
43
Q

Order Anura Reproduction

A
  • sexual dimorphism
  • > refers to a case where males and females differ in morphology
  • many anurans are sexually dimorphic, but only during breeding season
  • most have external fertilization
  • > sperm and egg meet outside females body
  • > only about 10 species have internal fertilization
  • in the US frogs use ponds, creeks and ditches
  • most species do not provide parental care
44
Q

Common Sexual Dimorphic traits in Order Anura

A
  • common sexually dimorphic traits are:
    1. Nuptial Pad (thumb pad) in some male frogs
  • Nuptial pads assists males with hanging on during amplexus
  • > male grasps female from behind and waits for eggs to be laid
  • > can last hours to days
    2. Vocal sac in male frogs
  • function to advertise to females
  • only males have vocal sacs
  • species can be identified by call
  • calls of nearby males stimulate production of testosterone and encourage breeding
45
Q

Order Anura: Length of tadpole stage

A
  • varies by species
  • days, weeks, months or years
  • even within a species, length of larval stage can vary by location or year
  • factors that might influence how long a tadpole goes through metamorphosis includes:
  • > if in a pond that water levels goes down and temperature heats up
46
Q

Order Anura: Taxonomic Families

A 
- 25 families globally, 9 in the eastern US
TOADS
1. Bufonidae
FROGS
2. Hylidae
3. Microhylidae
4. Ranidae
5. Scaphiopodidae
47
Q

Order Anura: Family Bufonidae

A
  • nickname: the true toads
  • in the southeastern US
  • all have:
    1. Warty Skin
    2. Horizontal/Ovoid Pupils
    3. Noticeable parotid glands
    4. Cranial Crest Ridges on Head
48
Q

Order Anura: Family Hylidae

A
  • nickname: the Treefrogs
    1. Small
    2. Slim waisted
    3. Long Legs
    4. Toe pads
  • most are climbers/arboreal
  • extra cartilage/joint in toes and toe pads for climbing and gripping
  • some species are more terrestrial or fossorial
  • females are larger
49
Q

Order Anura: Family Microhylidae

A
  • nickname: the Narrow-mouthed frogs
    1. Short snout
    2. Round Bodies
    3. Stout Legs
    4. Skinfold at the back of the neck
  • mostly terrestrial and fossorial
  • specialized diet for ants and termites (bc narrow mouth)
  • > one of the species in SC
50
Q

Order Anura: Family Ranidae

A
  • nickname: The North American water frogs
    1. Long legs
    2. Slim waist
    2. Smooth skin
    4. Webbed Feet
  • designed for swimming
51
Q

Order Anura: Family Scaphiopodidae

A
  • nickname: The North American Spadefoots
    1. Stocky build
  • body shape is toad like, but lack a parotid gland
    2. sharp blade on hind feet
  • for digging
    3. vertical ovoid pupil
52
Q

Order Caudata: Morphology

A
  • elongated bodies with tails
  • most have 4 limbs
  • usually have 4 toes on front feet and 5 toes on rear feet
  • trunk is superficially segmented by Costal Groove
  • > increases surface area for respiration
  • > lacking, or not visible in most newts
  • nearly 70% of salamanders are lungless and rely heavily on cutaneous respiration
53
Q

Order Caudata Life Stages

A
  • 3 distinct life stages and go through metamorphosis
    1. Egg
  • Jelly like
  • laid in water or most environment
  • drying out means death
    2. Larvae
  • have gills
    3. Adult
  • can be aquatic or terrestrial
54
Q

Order Caudata: Three modifications to the typical life cycle

A
  1. Direct development
    - metamorphosis takes place in the egg and hatchlings are mini adults
    ex: woodland salamander (fully terrestrial)
  2. Neoteny or Paedomorphosis
    - gills, or gill slits are retained through adulthood
    - all neotenic species are fully aquatic as adults
    ex: mudguppy
  3. Intermediate Terrestrial “eft” Phase
    - larvae are fully aquatic
    - juveniles leave the water and live terrestrially
    - then return to the water as adults and become fully aquatic again
    ex: Eastern Newts
55
Q

Order Caudata: Reproduction

A
  • do not call in partners like anurans, rely heavily on pheromonal communication
  • most have internal fertilization
  • > males deposit a spermatophore (pack of sperm)
  • > females pick it up and store in cloaca
  • > eggs fertilized in females body
  • a few use external fertilization
  • > takes place in water
  • > salamanders that use external fertilization are usually fully aquatic
  • many are sexually dimorphic, but only during breeding season
  • several salamanders provide parental care because female leaves egg with the male
  • > most common in salamanders that live in rivers and streams
56
Q

Order Caudata Sexually dimorphic traits

A
  • cloacal swelling
  • mental glands and nasal cirri
  • > both in males during the breeding season
57
Q

Order Caudata: Taxonomic families

A
  • 9 total
  • 7 in eastern US
    Fully Aquatic
    1. Amphiumidae
    2. Cryptobranchidae
    3. Proteidae
    4. Sirenidae
    Semi-Aquatic or fully terrestrial
    5. Ambystomatidae
    6. Plethodontidae
    7. Salamandridae
58
Q

Order Caudata: Family Amphiumidae

A
  • the amphiumas
  • longest salamander in North America
  • fully aquatic
  • standing water
  • gill slits as adults
  • 4 tiny legs
  • 1 to 3 toes, depending on species
59
Q

Order Caudata: Family Cryptobranchidae

A
  • the hellbenders
  • large
  • fully aquatic
  • rocky rivers and streams
  • gill slits as adults
  • can live over 25 years
  • 4 limbs
  • 4 front toes and 5 hind toes
60
Q

Order Caudata: Family Proteidae

A
  • the waterdogs and mudpuppies
  • fully aquatic
  • gills as adults
  • flowing or standing water
  • 4 limbs
  • 4 toes per foot
61
Q

Order Caudata: Family Sirenidae

A
  • the sirens
  • fully aquatic
  • gills as adults
  • can be long
  • 2 tiny legs
  • 4 toes per foot
  • slow moving streams or standing water
62
Q

Order Caudata: Family Ambystomatidae

A
  • the mole salamanders
  • adults are fossorial, they burrow underground for most of the year
  • breed in ponds and migrate short distances
63
Q

Order Caudata: Family Plethodontidae

A
  • the lungless salamanders
  • 70% of all salamanders are in this family
  • no lungs, rely on gills
  • > larvae, or cutaneous respiration
  • nasolabial grooves from nostril to upper lip
  • adults may be terrestrial or semi-aquatic
  • > many terrestrial species have direct development
64
Q

Order Caudata: Family Salamandridae

A
  • the newts
  • rougher skin than other salamanders
  • no visible costal grooves
  • most are fully aquatic
  • > all breed in standing or slow moving water
  • Eastern Newt occurs in SC has a terrestrial “eft” stage
  • toxic skin secretions
65
Q

Order Gymnophiona or Apoda

A
  • the caecelians
  • look like giant earthworms or snakes
  • have backbones
  • no scales
  • all are legless
  • can get large
  • skin is granular (poison) and mucous glands
  • some respiration with lungs and some without
  • ALL are fossorial
66
Q

Unique traits of Gymnophonia

A
  • highly ossified skull
  • poor vision
  • retractable tentacle for detecting scent
  • sharp teeth and powerful jaws
  • all are predatory
67
Q

Order Gymnophonia Life Cycle

A
  • some lay jelly like eggs
  • some give live birth
  • variety of life cycles
  • > larvae have gills, or gill slits
  • > larval stage in mom, in water, in moist, in soil, or in egg
  • adult habitat varies
  • > some aquatic families
  • > some more terrestrial
68
Q

Order Gymnophonia Reproduction

A
  • ALL use internal fertilization
  • males have a copulatory organ called a phallodeum
  • females provide parental care
69
Q

Conservation issues for amphibians

A
  • ranked among the most threatened and endangered group of vertebrates
  • about 30% (over 1500 species) are threatened with extinction
  • first recognized in early 2000s
  • four main drivers of amphibian decline
    1. Habitat Loss
  • biggest threat to amphibians worldwide, and in southeastern US
    2. Over-exploitation
  • harvest for food, or pet-trade
    3. Disease
  • Chytridiomycosis caused by amphibian chytrid fungus (Bd)
  • Bd invades amphibian skin and disrupts cutaneous function
  • the most vulnerable species live in cooler climates and are frogs
  • related fungus that is dangerous for salamanders Bsal discovered in 2013
    4. Introduced Species
  • outcompete native species
  • The Cane (marine) Toad
  • extremely toxic
70
Q

Class Reptilia Four Orders

A
  1. Squamata
    - lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids
  2. Testudines
    - turtles and tortoises
  3. Crocodilia
    - crocodiles, alligators, caimans and gharials
  4. Sphenodontia
    - Tuataras
71
Q

Class Reptilia Diversity and Distribution

A
  • about 9500 unique extant species
  • > most are snake and lizards
  • southeastern and southwestern US are the hotspots
72
Q

Key Reptilian Traits

A
  • two traits for exploiting hot and dry environments both associated with resistance to water loss
    1. Skin is relatively impermeable
    2. Amniotic eggs
  • have a hard shell

Wildlife Biology (4 decks)

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