Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Phylogenies
A
- used to identify how different species are related
- are made up of branches(like a tree) and nodes (where two branches join)
- groups or species are placed at the tips of branches
- nodes represent a common ancestor that is no longer in existence
- the lower the number of nodes separating two species or groups, the more closely they are related
2
Q
Gills
A
- many larvae and some paedomorphic species
- paedomorphosis is the retention of juvenile traits into adulthood (ex: gills)
- gills can be internal (tadpole) or external
- > oxygen diffuses from the water to the blood stream
- > carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood stream into the water
3
Q
Three Domains of Life
A
- Archaea
- single celled
- prokaryotes: lacks membrane-bound nucleus/organelles
- extremophiles: restricted to extreme environments - Bacteria
- single celled
- prokaryotes
- more ubiquitous than archaea, slightly different chemistry to cell walls, etc - Eukaryota (Eukarya)
- can be single celled or multicellular
- eukaryotes: membrane bound nucleus/organelles
4
Q
Taxon
A
- the group an animal is assigned to (at any level)
- taxa is the plural form of taxon
- each species is assigned to a specific group in each level of the taxonomic hierarchy
ex: animalia is a taxon within eukaryota
5
Q
Why do we use Latin (scientific) names in the field of science?
A
- because it is universal and removes confusion out of which animal is being referred to
- > in different areas of the world people call different animals different things (ground hog, marmot, woodchuck, etc all same animal)
6
Q
In what order did each group of the tetrapods arise, who did they evolve from and what is the estimated date?
A
Earliest
1. Amphibians (about 400 mill years ago)
- evolved from fish (lung fish and coelacanth)
2. Reptiles (about 350 mill years ago)
- evolved from amphibians
3. Mammals (about 250 mill years ago)
- evolved from reptiles (theropod dinosaurs)
4. Birds (about 200 mill years ago)
- evolved from reptiles (mammal-like reptiles)
Most Recent
7
Q
Primary purpose of the respiratory system
A
- move oxygenated blood to vital organs
- move deoxygenated blood to the site of oxygen absorption
- > also transport other solutes, heat, etc
- > intertwined with gas exchange
8
Q
Two types of Pulmonary Response
A
- Positive Pressure
- air is PUSHED into the lungs
- an example is buccal pumping
- used by amphibians - Negative Pressure
- air is PULLED into the lungs
- used by reptiles and mammals
9
Q
Four kinds of teeth in mammals
A
- Incisors
- Canines
- Premolars
- Molars
- the number and arrangement of each type can be composed into a dental formula
- dental formula can be used to identify a skull to ORDER and SOMETIMES species:
-> total number of teeth is double the formula
(ICPM 1/2 of upper jaw) / (ICPM 1/2 of lower jaw)
10
Q
Circulation in Reptilia
A
- MOST reptiles have a THREE chambered heart
- TWO atria
- ONE ventricle
- > partially divided!
- > oxygenated/deoxygenated blood kept well, but not completely separated
- > slightly more efficient than amphibians (more complex)
- exception is crocodilians (4 chamber)
11
Q
Type Species
A
- the species used to first describe the genus
12
Q
Gas exchange in Mammalia
A
- mammal lungs are LARGE
- > fill most of the thoracic cavity (constitute 5% of the body volume)
- > the bigger the animal, the bigger the lung
- expansion/contraction of lungs is aided by a muscle called the diaphragm
- gas exchange occurs in highly vascularized ducts called alveoli located throughout the lungs
- > freshly oxygenated air is inhaled
- > in the alveoli, oxygen diffuses from lungs into the blood stream and carbon dioxide diffuses from the bloodstream into the lungs
- > deoxygenated air is exhaled
13
Q
Between a bat and a bison:
- Which animal has the higher BMR?
- Which animal has the higher mass-specific BMR?
- Which animal has the faster Heart rate?
A
- Bison
- Bat
- Bat
14
Q
Four Kingdoms within the Domain Eukaryota
A
- Protista
- Fungi
- Plantae
- Animalia
- there are over 20 phyla within this kingdom, we will focus on
a. Phylum Chordata
b. Subphylum Chordata
c. Superclass Tetrapoda
d. Class Amphibia
e. Class Reptilia
f. Class Aves
g. Class mammalia
15
Q
Heterothermic Animals
A
- usually maintain a constant body temperature, but go through specific periods when their body temperature changes considerably
- > SOME endotherms are heterotherms
16
Q
Endotherms and their environment
A
- generate and maintain their own heat through metabolic processes
- heat is generated through the breakdown of food, or stored energy
example of stored energy: - fat
- if an animal is in a crisis and run out of fat will break down muscle for energy (extreme cases)
17
Q
Pulmonary Respiration in mammals, MOST reptiles, and amphibians
A
- it is bidirectional
- > bi-directional respiration is less efficient
- > it is impossible to exhale ALL de-oxygenated air, so each full breath is part fresh(O2) and part stale air (CO2)
18
Q
Circulation in Amphibia
A
- ALL amphibians have a THREE chambered heart
- TWO atria
- > left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
- > right atrium received deoxygenated blood from the body
- ONE ventricle
- > oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can mix before the blood goes back out to the body
19
Q
Taxonomists
A
- determine what is or is not a species
- biologists that focus on organizing, classifying, naming and describing species
- they study both systematics and taxonomy
- they are spread all over the world, there is no central office
- > there are scientific societies and organizations to maintain lists (upload into common database)
20
Q
Examples of heterothermy in endotherms
A
- Daily torpor
- birds and small mammals
- lowered body temperature and metabolism lasting for less than 24 hours
- arouse to forage - Hibernation
- usually larger mammals
- torpor lasting days to weeks
- no foraging, relies on stored energy reserves
- > drawback is that they use up all their reserves and they can not move during hibernation
21
Q
Pulmonary Respiration in amphibia
A
- breathing with the lungs
- > frogs, toads and many salamander
- amphibians use a special case of pulmonary respiration called Buccal Pumping
- > involves positive pressure, air is pushed into the lungs by contractions of the buccal cavity
22
Q
Two types of Muscle in Aves
A
- Slow-twitch (red) muscle
- contract slowly
- used for endurance activities (sustained flying)
- Need lots of oxygen, so packed with myoglobin
- > myoglobin is an oxygen carrying molecule/protein that is red in color
- > more myoglobin = red meat - Fast-twitch (white) muscle
- contract quickly
- used for short bursts of activity (running when startled)
- anaerobic metabolic processes, so no need for oxygen
- less myoglobin = white meat
23
Q
Origins of the Tetrapod
A
- the first tetrapod was probably more fishlike than anything
- possessed a trait that had not previously existed on earth (as far as we know)
- > four limbs, supported by a bony skeleton
- > all tetrapods are vertebrates (backbone) with a rigid endoskeleton
24
Q
Ideal temperature range for different species (humans, dogs, and snakes/turtles)
A
- the ideal temperature range varies from species to species
1. Humans: 97-99 ‘F
2. Dogs: 101-102.5 ‘F
3. Snakes and Turtles: 48-100 ‘F
25
Homeothermic Animals
- maintain a constant body temperature across a wide range of conditions
- > MOST endotherms(mammals and birds) are homeotherms
26
Metabolism
- chemical processes occurring in an organism that is necessary to maintain life
-> endotherms have faster metabolisms
- all processes consume oxygen
- the heart pumps to bring in more oxygen
examples of metabolic processes:
- break down of food for energy
- build up of tissues
27
Do we see the trait of four legs in all tetrapods?
- no because over time animals evolve to adjust to their specific environments
- loss of limbs is a more modern evolutionary trait
- BUT! ***all animals that evolved from the first tetrapod on earth, are still considered tetrapods even if they evolved to having less than four feet**
28
What information can be used to determine whether two birds are members of the same species?
- we need an objective way to define species
- interbreed with each other and viable offspring
- song of bird
- beak and morphology
- nesting behavior / egg color patterns
- food items / ecology
- genetics *
29
Cutaneous Respiration
- breathing through the skin
- EXTREMELY common among amphibians
- > skin is thin, highly permeable and highly vascularized
- moisture is KEY
- some species rely 100% on cutaneous respiration
- > hellbenders have lungs, but rely primarily on cutaneous respiration to get most of their O2
- other species use it in combination with other modes
30
Ecological Species Concept
- a concept of species in which a species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources in the environment
- > two similar organisms can evolve differently in unique environments causing them to be different species that can still interbreed, but have unique traits (polar and grizzly bears)
31
All tetrapods have certain requirements for life
- temperature regulation
- gas exchange
- blood flow
- support/protection of the body
- reproduction
32
The biological species concept
- the most common concept of a species (used for all life)
- a group of individuals that can interbreed with each other (in nature), but not with other species AND produce fertile offspring
- puts an emphasis on reproductive isolation, therefore it is difficult to determine for extinct species
- > Does NOT work for species that reproduce asexually and populations that are geographically isolated
33
Endothermy
- body heat is derived internally
| - mammals and birds
34
Sir David Attenborough talk about the TOL
- modern genetics confirmed that all life is related
- the tree of life began in the ocean as cells which became bacteria
- evolved from amphibians came reptiles
- reptiles included dinosaurs, but then they became extinct
- > some of these dinosaurs survived and evolved into birds when extinction occurred
- mammals were then created from mammal-like reptiles
35
Organs involved in Non-Pulmonary Gas Exchange
1. Gills
2. Skin
3. Buccal cavity/Buccopharyngeal mucosa
- buccal cavity = mouth
- pharyngeal cavity = nose and throat
4. Cloaca
- common opening for waste excretion and reproduction
- ALL herps and birds have a cloaca
- SOME mammals have a cloaca
36
How many species are there today?
- science estimates there are 5-30 million species currently on earth
- only about 1-2 million are named
- > the world is so large it is hard to identify all the species and some are so small it is hard to locate, hence why the range is large but few are named
- > we are still discovering new species everyday
37
Implications of lowered metabolism
- for ectotherms and animals in torpor/hibernation
- reduced body temperature = lowered metabolism
- all metabolic processes slow down
- > can not break down food
- > can not build up tissues
- lethargy and slow movement
38
Phylogenetics
- branch of science aimed at identifying evolutionary relationships between organisms
- phylogeneticists create phylogenies
39
Skeleton of Amphibia
- structure reflects mode of movement
- > hopping, crawling, and swimming
- ribs are reduced
- Feet digits
- > FOUR front
- > FIVE hind
40
Relationships between body size and metabolism
1. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
- larger animals have a higher BMR than smaller animals because a larger animal needs more calories to exist
2. Basal Mass-specific Metabolic Rate
- larger animals have a lower mass-specific BMR than smaller animals
3. Heart Rate
- larger animals have a lower heart rate than smaller animals
- > smaller animals do not have much stored energy (fat), therefore it is harder to conserve body heat and must work harder
41
All tetrapods have certain requirements for life
1. temperature regulation
2. gas exchange
3. blood flow
4. support/protection of the body
5. reproduction
42
What are the collective classes of amphibia and reptilia referred to as?
- herpetofauna, or herps
43
Consider a rattlesnake and a rabbit...
1. Which animal is likely to experience a wider range of body temperatures over the course of a single day?
2. What behaviors would you expect from each animal if....
a. we experienced an extreme heat spell that lasted days?
b. we experienced an extreme snow/ice storm that lasted days?
1. rattlesnake
2.
Rattlesnake
a. switch activity patterns (go out at night), metabolism moving faster, so sit still and hide
b. be dormant bc body temperature is cold and metabolism is slow
Rabbit
a. seek shade, still need to go out to eat
b. need to eat and forage to stay warm
44
Levels of division within each class
1. Order
2. Family
3. Genus
4. Species
- > there are many unique species within the class
45
Air sac functions in AVES
- during inhalation air sacs expand to accept air
- posterior air sacs accept oxygen rich air
- anterior air sacs accept de-oxygenated air
- during exhalation air sacs compress to move air out
- posterior air sacs move air to the lungs (after inhale)
- anterior air sacs move air to the trachea (after exhale)
- > it takes two full (inhale/exhale) cycles to move one packet of air through the system
46
Teeth of Aves
1. Aves have NO TEETH
- bill refers to the entire mouth
2. Rhamphotheca
- > horny sheath over the bill that grows continuously
- > modified for the birds specific diet (gets worn down and will regenerate)
3. toothless
- egg "tooth" of young (raised portion on the beak so young can break out of the edge, goes away after hatching)
- removes need for jawbone
- Gizzard fills the role of grinding food
47
Species are defined based on multiple pieces of information such as:
1. Biology
2. Morphology
3. Genetics - most objective so far bc can quantify
4. Ecology
5. Evolutionary Origin
6. etc....
- > the number of species is always in fluctuation due to lumping and splitting
48
What does species mean?
- species is a latin word meaning kind or appearance
| - it is both singular and plural (word spelling does not change)
49
Teeth of Reptilia
- teeth are diverse because diets are diverse
- teeth vary amongst taxonomic groups
1. Turtles
- modified as sheaths
2. Lizards and Crocodilians
- peg like teeth
- triangular
3. Snakes
- backward facing teeth so that they have a better grip on their prey since they have no limbs to help swallow
- > swallow prey slowly
50
Inhale/exhale cycle to move one packet of air through the birds respiratory system
- > it takes two full (inhale/exhale) cycles to move one packet of air through the system bc unidirectional
- inhale 1: inhaled air goes into posterior air sacs
- exhale 1: air moves into the lungs
- inhale 2: air moves to anterior air sacs
- exhale 2: exhaled air moves outside of body
51
Even if we have a good idea of what defines a species, what can pose a problem?
- hybridization can cause a problem because we do not know what to name the offspring
- > it is two different species that can interbreed
52
Species Naming
- binomial nomenclature
- made up of 2-part scientific name with latin or greek root words
Ex: Mimus polyglottos
-> Mimus is the Genus
-> polyglottos is the Specific epithet
53
Rules when using scientific names: Genus and Species rule
Genus:
- genus is singular
- genera is plural (there are multiple genera within the family)
Species
- always has 2 parts (binomial)
- both words always italicized or underlined
- first letter of the genus is capitalized
- the specific epithet is lower case and never appears without the genus
54
Gas exchange in Endotherms
- ALL birds and mammals use pulmonary respiration
- all are NEGATIVE pressure breathers
- pulmonary respiration in birds and mammals differs slightly from that seen in reptiles
- higher metabolic rates in endotherms call for more complex and more efficient lungs
- > need to get rid of more carbon dioxide
- > need to get more oxygen
55
Circulation in FROGS
- THREE chambered heart
- normally deoxygenated blood leaves the heart and is directed towards the lungs to pick up more oxygen
- BUT when a frog is submerged, blood flow patterns change
- > a greater portion of deoxygenated blood is directed to the SKIN
56
The modern Taxonomic Heirarchy
1. Domain
2. Kingdom
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order
6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species
- > a complete classification includes assignments for each rank in the hierarchy (taxon)
- > the hierarchy (nestedness) reflects evolutionary relatedness
- HIGH levels (Kingdoms) are more distant relatedness
- LOW levels (families) reflect closer relatedness
57
Two modes of gas exchange
1. Pulmonary Gas Exchange
- involves the lungs
- ALL birds and mammals
- SOME reptiles and amphibians
2. Non-Pulmonary Gas Exchange
- involves highly vascularized tissue other than lungs
- ALL amphibians
- SOME reptiles
58
Tetrapoda taxonomy
- tetrapoda is a superclass
- it has four classes:
1. amphibia (amphibians)
2. Reptilia (reptiles)
3. Aves (birds)
4. Mammalia (mammals)
59
What is the basic unit we use to classify animals and what is it useful for?
- species is the basic unit we use to classify animals
- useful for:
- > keeping an inventory of life on earth (past and present)
- > organizing and studying life on earth such as the evolutionary relationships and similarities/differences
- > quantifying biodiversity aka what we have, or might lose (# of unique species)
60
What is the biggest difference between circulatory systems of the four classes?
- has to do with the PUMP AKA THE HEART
- aquatic animals have a less complex heart
- terrestrial animals have a more complex heart
- Complexity includes:
- > the number of chambers (atria and ventricles)
- > the atria chambers carry blood into the heart
- > the ventricle chambers carry blood out of the heart
61
The morphological species concept
- another common concept of species:
- a group of individuals that is morphologically, physiologically, or biochemically distinct from other groups
- it is determined by traits that can be observed and/or measured (size, number, pattern, chemical makeup)
- > color, limb length, diameter of nasal openings
- > also cell structure, venom chemistry, etc
- can be difficult when geographic variation exists (ex: different colors based on location)
62
Pulmonary Respiration in Reptilia
- ALL reptiles use a negative pressure form, or pulmonary respiration
- > air is pulled in as the chest/thoracic cavity expands (aided by muscle)
- gas exchange occurs inside the lungs in highly vascularized tissue called alveoli
63
In what order did each group of the tetrapods arise, who did they evolve from and what is the estimated date?
Earliest
1. Amphibians (about 400 mill years ago)
- evolved from fish (lung fish and coelacanth)
2. Reptiles (about 350 mill years ago)
- evolved from amphibians
3. Mammals (about 200 mill years ago)
- evolved from reptiles (theropod dinosaurs)
4. Birds (about 250 mill years ago)
- evolved from reptiles (mammal-like reptiles)
Most Recent
64
Snakes and Gas Exchange
- they only use one lung, the right lung through the entire body
- left lung is vestigial
- > a vestigial structure is one that is a remnant or a trace of a structure that has lost all or most of its original function through the course of evolution
65
Circulation in Aves and Mammalia
- FOUR chambered heart
- TWO atria
- TWO ventricles
- > oxygenated/deoxygenated blood DO NOT MIX
66
Poikilothermic animals
- have a body temperature that changes with their environment
- > ALL ectotherms are also poikilotherms
* exception is when an ectotherm lives in an environment that the temperature does not change
67
Rules to remember when using taxonomy in general
- each taxon is a proper noun, capitalize the first letter
- always italicize or underline the genus and species name (BOTH)
- always use a binomial at the species level
68
Why does thermoregulation matter?
- body temperature controls metabolism and metabolism controls whether you are alive or dead!
- > if your body is either too hot or too cold metabolic processes will fail!!!
- > therefore staying alive means keeping your body in the ideal temperature range!
- body temperature determines what the body can do
- > every animal can tolerate a range of temperatures, but some tolerate wider ranges than others
69
Circulation in Crocodilians
- all crocodiles, alligators, etc
- AN EXCEPTION they have FOUR Chambered heart
- TWO atria
- TWO ventricles
- > oxygenated/deoxygenated blood DO NOT MIX
- > very similar in structure to heart of birds and mammals
70
What is the class, order and family of these species?
1. Green Treefrog
2. Timber rattlesnake
3. American Robin
4. Wood Duck
5. American Black Bear
1. Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae
2. Reptilia, Squamata, Viperidae
3. Aves, Passeriformes, Turdidae
4. Aves, Anseriformes, Anatidae
5. Mammalia, carnivora, ursidae
71
Ectothermy
- body heat is derived form external sources
| - ALL reptiles and amphibians
72
The purpose of the respiratory system
- to transport oxygen into the bloodstream
| - remove carbon dioxide from the bloodstream
73
Two ways to think about metabolism
1. Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
- the amount of energy needed per unit time to maintain life
2. Basal mass-specific metabolic rate
- the amount of energy needed per unit mass, per unit time to maintain life
74
Two types of air sacs in birds with different functions
1. Anterior (towards head) air sacs
| 2. Posterior (towards rear) air sacs
75
Methods of Gas Exchange in Amphibia
1. Gills
2. Cutaneous Respiration (skin)
3. Buccopharyngeal respiration
4. Pulmonary respiration
76
All primates have the same dental formula what is it?
- (2 1 2 3) / (2 1 2 3)
- > 32 teeth total
- > 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars
77
Systematics
- the branch of biology that deals with classifying, describing and naming species while considering phylogeny (evolutionary relationships)
78
Herpetology
- the branch of science focused on reptiles and amphibians
79
Gas exchange in Aves
- ALL birds use ONLY pulmonary respiration
- lungs are smaller and rigid
- > do not expand like reptile, or mammal lungs
- lungs are dense
- > same weight, but half the volume as lungs in a similarly sized mammal or reptile
- in addition to lungs, ALL BIRDS POSSESS 9 AIR SACS!
- air sacs are interconnected with the lungs
- > are ballon like - thin walled tissue
- > air sacs function to move air through the lung
- > gas exchange occurs IN THE AIR CAPILLARIES OF THE LUNGS, not in the air sacs
- air sacs move air through the lungs in ONE DIRECTION
- > O2 diffuses from the capillaries into the blood stream
- > CO2 diffuses from the blood stream into the capillaries
80
Thermoregulation
- the process by which animals maintain or alter their body temperature
81
Type Specimen
- the body of the animal that was used to originally describe the species
- usually kept in a museum
82
Tetrapods consist of:
1. Amphibians
2. Reptiles
3. Birds
4. Mammals
83
Muscles in Aves: why don't perching and sleeping birds fall?
1. Hallux
- large opposable toe for perching
- as knee is bent, tendons in the leg cause hallux to lock and close
- only way to unlock is to straighten the leg
- does not require energy to grip as it would if we were to try and hang onto a branch
84
Subspecies rules
- some (but not all) species are subdivided into subspecies
- all subspecies are members of the species they fall within
- name has 3 parts (Genus, specific epithet, and subspecific epithet)
- Never capitalize the subspecific epithet
- never use subspecific epithet without the genus AND specific epithet
- always italicize or underline all three parts
85
Can turtles use negative pressure pulmonary respiration?
- the rib bones of turtles are fused together to form the visible outer shell
- > they can not expand, but they do use negative pressure when breathing
86
Muscle of Mammalia
1. Dermal Musculature (associated with skin)
- better developed than in other groups
- allows twitching of the skin
2. Unique musculature on head
a. Mouth muscles
- vital for nursing (among first to be used)
b. Facial muscles
- important in social interactions
- > facial expressions
87
Buccopharyngeal Respiration
- breathing through the lining of the mouth, nose and throat
- tissue is highly vascularized
- > Carbon dioxide is released
- > oxygen is absorbed
88
What is often followed by a scientific name?
- a name and date that gives credit to the taxonomist that first described the species and the year it was published
89
Taxonomy shortcuts
- order names for mammalia, amphibia and reptilia all end in -a
- order names for aves end in -mes
- for all 4 classes family names end in -dae
90
Gas exchange in Aves
- ALL birds use ONLY pulmonary respiration
- lungs are smaller and rigid
- > do not expand like reptile, or mammal lungs
- lungs are dense
- > same weight, but half the volume as lungs in a similarly sized mammal or reptile
- in addition to lungs, ALL BIRDS POSSESS 9 AIR SACS!
- air sacs are interconnected with the lungs
- > are ballon like - thin walled tissue
- > air sacs function to move air through the lung
- > gas exchange occurs IN THE LUNGS, not in the air sacs
- air sacs move air through the lungs in ONE DIRECTION
- gas exchange occurs in air capillaries of the lungs
- > O2 diffuses from the capillaries into the blood stream
- > CO2 diffuses from the blood stream into the capillaries
91
What does tetrapod stand for?
- Tetra = four
- Pod = feet
- > all animals that evolved from the first tetrapod on earth, are still considered tetrapods even if they evolved to having less than four feet
92
Case Study: Sea Snake and Boa Constrictor submerged
1. Sea Snake
- 2.6 surface breaths per hour
- 92% of O2 from surface
- 33% of CO2 exchange under water
2. Black Racer (Boa)
- 146 surface breaths per hour
- 97% of O2 from surface
- 21% of CO2 exchange under water
- > found that the sea snake took fewer breaths at the surface because the skin was well suited for gas exchange
93
What is the goal of gas exchange?
- all animals need to breathe oxygen
| - the goal is to remove carbon dioxide from the blood stream and add oxygen instead
94
Carolus Linneaus (1707-1778)
- regarded as the founder of modern taxonomy for living things
- > before Linneaus' contributions, animals were grouped by species and nothing more
- swedish biologist that studied plants (Swiss botanist)
- frustrated by the many different systems of naming and inconsistencies (long descriptive latin phrases)
95
Tree of life
- a phylogeny of all life on earth (all living groups)
- just like a tree, the phylogeny of all life shares a single "trunk"
- > all life is related and has a common ancestor
96
What major trait separates the Herps from Aves and Mammalia?
- the way they thermoregulate
- ALL reptiles and amphibians (herps) are ectotherms
- mammals and birds are endothermic
97
Teeth of Amphibia
- all adults are carnivorous
- catch/hold prey
- prey are swallowed whole
- location/arrangement of teeth are used to identify species
- Vomerine teeth
- > arise from the part of the skull called the palate
- Maxillary teeth
- > arise from the maxillary or premaxillary portion of the skull (outer curved edge)
- all amphibians have Pedicellate Teeth
- > two parts connected by fibrous tissue
1. Pedicel - elongated calcified base (cant see this)
2. Crown - calcified tip that protrudes above the gum
- > breaks off when work and replaced through life (regenerate)
98
Gas Exchange in reptilia
- ALL reptiles have lungs and use pulmonary respiration
- a few species can also use:
- > cutaneous respiration
- > buccopharyngeal respiration
- > cloacal respiration
- most reptilians that use methods other than pulmonary respiration are aquatic
- SOME reptiles can use pulmonary respiration AND cutaneous respiration
- > skin figures more into carbon dioxide excretion, than oxygen uptake
- a FEW reptiles can use pulmonary respiration AND buccopharyngeal respiration
- > muscles move water across highly vascularized tissues
- > as efficient as breathing air
- > ex: Soft shell turtle burrows into the lake/pond to stay hidden in the substrate and open mouth to get Oxygen
- a FEW reptiles use pulmonary respiration AND cloacal respiration (sea turtles and Softshell turtles)
- > water is pumped into the cloacal chamber
- > cloacal bursae is the highly vascularized tissue lining the cloacal chamber that can facilitate gas exchange
99
How many species have been in existence?
- science suggests life began about 3-5 billion years ago
- about 500 million species are estimated to have lived on earth
- 99% are estimated to be extinct
100
Ectothermy Pros and Cons
PROs
- more efficient at converting energy into biomass (than endotherms)
- can inhabit areas where there is not enough food to support a similar sized endotherm
CONs
- environment dictates when animals can be active (days/nights, seasons, etc)
101
What type of birds have slow twitch muscle fibers and fast twitch muscle fibers?
1. Migratory birds have more slow-twitch (red) muscle fibers
2. Non-migratory, ground nesting birds such as quail, pheasants, and turkey have more fast twitch (white) muscle fibers
- > lots of intermediates (red and white blends) also exist
102
Skeleton of Reptilia
- structure reflects mode of movement
- > crawling, climbing, and slithering
- ribs are well developed
- > ribs are modified in turtles to form the shell (fused)
- Feet Digits
- > FIVE front
- > FIVE hind
103
Genetic Species Concept
- taxonomists examine genes of organisms to determine whether species are related
- > works for asexual species
- a group of genetically compatible interbreeding natural populations that is genetically isolated from other such groups
104
Monotypic taxon
- taxon with only one member in the lower taxon
| ex: single genus within a family or a single species within a genus
105
How do Tetrapod classes differ in achieving the requirements for life
- form = body structure and organization
| - function = how structures work together to accomplish something
106
What was the new naming system Carl Linneaus established that we use today?
- Taxonomic hierarchy
- 7 levels (8 if you include DOMAIN)
- binomial nomenclature
- > each species has a 2 part latin name
107
Ectotherms and their environment
- depend on their environment to maintain an ideal body temp
- have some control of body temperature through behavior
ex:
- basking to warm up, staying under water to avoid cold air
- going under ground or under water to cool down
108
Skeleton of Mammalia
- parts of mammalian bone grow and ossify (harden) at different times
1. Epiphysis
- ossifies early
2. Metaphysis (cartilaginous)
- growth until mature, ossifies at maturity
3. Diaphysis (shaft
- ossifies and fuses with other parts at maturity
- > a biologist can use this information to determine how mature an organism was (their age) at their time of death
109
Teeth in Mammalia
- nearly all mammals have teeth
- only have 2 sets of teeth during life
- ALL mammals are heterodont (different types of teeth)
- > hetero = different and dont = teeth
- > numbers and arrangement of each kind of tooth reflect diet
- homodont refers to an animal whose teeth are all the same
- > amphibians and reptiles
110
Why does the number of chambers in the heart matter?
- A four chambered heart is more efficient
- > oxygenated/deoxygenated blood DO NOT MIX
- allows for greater endurance
- creates two separate circuits with different pressure
1. Pulmonary: Heart to lungs
- low pressure
2. Systemic: Heart to extremities
- high pressure bc travels farther in the circuit
111
What is the general function of the musculoskeletal system?
1. support
- on land and in water
2. movement
- muscles are attached to and pull skeletal bones
- muscles help other systems function such as the respiratory system (diaphragm), and circulatory system (heart)
3. protection
- vital organs
4. eating
- teeth are NOT BONE, but are considered part of the skeletal system
112
IN AVES:
1. What happens to air sacs on inhale and exhale?
2. Where does the air entering the anterior air sacs come from? Where does it go when it leaves?
3. Where does the air entering the posterior air sacs come from? Where does it go when it leaves?
4. Number the following based on the path a breath of fresh air follows (inhale, exhale, lungs, anterior air sacs, posterior air sacs.
1. On inhale, air sacs expand. On exhale, air sacs compress.
2. Air entering the anterior sacs come from the lungs.
When the air leaves the anterior sacs it is exhaled through the trachea
3. The air entering the posterior sacs is inhaled through the trachea. The air leaving the trachea goes to the lungs.
4. Inhale-> posterior air sacs -> lungs -> anterior air sacs -> exhaled
113
Skeleton of Aves
- Skeleton and muscle accommodate flight
1. Pneumatic bones
- lightweight, and filled with air spaces
2. Furcula
- fused clavicle/collarbone (wishbone)
3. Keeled sternum
- raised ridge along midline of sternum where breast muscles are anchored
4. Uncinate (hooked) processes
- extensions of bone from ribs
- > helps with stabilization during flight
