Exam 2 Flashcards
Advertising
Paid announcements promoted through different types of media.
Dominant revenue source for commercial media
Public Relations
Strategic communication that seeks to build relationships between organizations and the public,
Often works with and attempts to influence media
Advertising and the Penny Press
- Industrial presses expanded circulation
- Editors realized they could sell papers for a penny
- They would lose money on circulation (papers sold), but regain it with advertising revenue
Philosophy of advertising
- Essay by Horace Greeley, 1850
- He said to be aware of “immense change in the power of the public press”
- To neglect “the advantages of advertising robs publishers of fair advantages and aids wiser rivals” `
J. Walter Thompson
1878 - First full-service advertising agency
- Copywriting, design, placement
- Believed heavily in advertising; believed it was just a fact of life
- “Ads can’t be too strong” , “you cannot catch public eye too skillfully”
Four Models of Ad agencies
- Newspapers Agencies- Take orders for ads
- Brokers/Space Jobbers- Sell space to clients then buy the ad space
- Space Wholesalers- Buy large amounts of ad space at a discount then resell it to clients at regular rates
- Advertising Concessions
Contract ad space and take risk of selling the space
Uneeda Biscuit Ad
N.W. Ayer ad for first packaged and ready-to-eat food from Nabisco
Thomas Lipton
Orchestrated stunts to build publicity
Advertising Regulation
All ads were allowed without concern for public in US until 1906-1914
- Federal Trade Commission
- Food and Drug Administration
Grape Nuts
- Advertised for a cure of appendicitis
- Both false and dangerous
- Was eventually prohibited from making such false claims
“Red Clause”
Allowed patent medicine makers to void contracts in the case of regulation
Shift to Image (1910s)
Great appeals to image and emotion
Less argument-based
Ivy Lee (1877-1937)
- Founder of modern public relations
- State militia killed 19 during 1914 coal miners strike
- Lee blamed victims
- Circulated “How Colorado Editors View the Strike,” which quoted 11 coal industry supporters
- All 11 worked for papers owned by the coal industry
Battle of Currents
- Westinghouse Electric created first in-house public relations department in 1899
- Westinghouse favored Alternating Current (AC, Tesla)
- General Electric favored direct current (DC, Edison) - Smear campaigns to discredit competitors
- Began planting stories in papers
Protecting the Monopoly
- Campaign helped AT&T to remain a monopoly
- Emphasized reliability and universal service
- Strove to create affection for the company
- “Creating a corporate soul,” Roland Marchand
Committee on Public Information (1917-1919)
- Also known as Creel Committee
- Aimed to influence US public opinion regarding participation in WW1
- “Engineering of consent”
Camel Cigarettes
- Most men smoked cigars until Camel ad campaign in 1913
- The campaign mimicked Uneeda biscuit campaign
- Introduced Camels with teaser ads to create excitement
Tobacco Advertising
Took a while for regulation to occur
Leo Burnett (1891-1971)
Believed in personalizing and sentimentalizing products
- Jolly green giant
- Pillsbury dough boy
- Charlie the tuna
- Tony the tiger
- Marlboro man
Marlboro Man
Developed by Leo Burnett in 1954
Research showed men considered filtered cigs feminine
TV Tobacco Ads Banned
- Moved to print
2. All print ads must display health warning from US Surgeon General
David Ogilvy
- Said brand personality draws consumers to products
2. Called “most sought after wizard in today’s advertising industry” in 1962
Normal B. Norman
Theories of empathy
ex. Colgate-Palmolive, Revlon, Chanel
Helen Lansdowne Resor 1886-1964
Worked for J. Walter Thompson
Marketed products to women
ex. “This skin you’ll love to touch”
Rosser Reeves (1910-1984)
- Pioneer of broadcast advertising
- “Unique selling proposition)
- Distinctive quality designed to attract customers - Repetition of slogans or dramatic demonstrations
- M&m’s “melts in your mouth not in your hands” - Inspiration for Don Draper in mad men
William Bernbach
Offbeat campaign
“Creative revolution” of the 1960s and 70s
“Think small” of Volkswagen
Lee Clow:
Adapted Bernbach creative revolution to new generation
- Apple
- Energizer bunny
- Taco bell chihuahua
War Advertising Council:
- Voluntary Ad Campaigns, 1942
- Industry was under investigation at the time
- Responds with campaign to protect itself and promote its importance to the war effort - This is a PR move
- War Advertising Council was later named Advertising Council
Edward Bernays (1891-1995) and Scientific PR
Scientific PR = consultation with psychologists about why people like certain products
“Torches of Freedom”
- One of Edward Bernays’ campaigns
- Campaign to tie smoking to women’s rights
- Cigarettes as symbols of emancipation and equality
- Bernays later expressed regret learning that cigarette health risks
Advertisements as Free Speech:
“New York Times” v. Sullivan, 1964
- Important US libel case
- Did civil rights groups have freedom to criticize Alabama government in advertising?
- US Supreme court ruled: YES
Nestle Controversy:
Marketed baby formula to Aruba and Zimbabwe, claiming that it was cleaner and safer than breast milk
- These countries lacked clean water to mix with formula powder
- Led to widespread boycotts
Tylenol Controversy:
1982 poisoning
- This was not the companies fault: product had been tampered with
- Tylenol recalled products
- Refunded customers
- Staffed phone banks
- Developed tamper-proof packaging
- This change how drugs were packaged and sold
- This is an example of PR dealt with a crisis
British Petroleum (BP)
2010 oil spill in Gulf of Mexico
Disastrous environmental impacts
Personalized and Algorithmic Ads in Digital Age:
- Based on search histories
- Able to locate more specific groups and target those most likely to purchase a given product
- This is how google makes most of its money
- Advertising through data mining
Telegraph allowed _____ for print journalism
wire services
Telephone allowed _____.
Media networks
Telegraph:
- First telegraph in UK, 1837
- Replied on morse code (extensive use began in 1890s)
- More efficient
- Based on print technology
Morse Code Adapted to Print Technology
1 .Most frequently used letters, simplest codes
- Typical code font, printers stocked 12,000 E’s and 9,000 T’s
- Printers stocked 400 Q’s and 200 Z’s because they were rarely used
Samuel Morse (1791-1872)
- Invented Morse Code
- Morse wanted telegraph to be owned by the government
- European nations left it unregulated
- US allowed telegraph to become monopoly (Western Union)
News and the Telegraph
Before telegraph news was lengthy descriptive, narrative
News sent by telegraph was brief, factual, inverted pyramid
Associated Press Formed in 1846
- Became a monopoly with Western Union telegraph company in 1860s
- Blocked competition
AP-Western Union Monopoly
- Could “veto” entry of new members
- Refused to pass along “hostile” information about AP for Western Union
- Exclusion of competitors from key newspaper markets
- Created false competitor (United Press) in 1882 that secretly funneled profits back to AP
AP Loses 1900 Lawsuit
- State of Illinois antitrust suit
- Filed in Inter-Ocean News
- Refused membership into AP - Court rules “newspapers are solely dependent upon such an association” and are worthless without them
Telephone and Western Union
The telegraph company Western Union refused to buy the telephone from Alexander Graham Bell
Telephone Becomes a Monopoly
- From 1890s - 1980s, AT&T forced most competitors out of business
- Public relations campaign helped prevent a breakup until 1980s
What does the radio do that other media up to this point could not?
Represent live events
Two Visions of how Radio should Operate:
- Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937)
- Spark Radio Telegraphy - Reginald Fessenden (1886-1932)
- Continuous Wave Telephony
Spark Radio Telegraphy
Signal soaked up the entire spectrum - only one transmitter at a time possible
Continuous Wave Telephony
Many transmitters possible simultaneously
Titanic: April 15, 1912
Marconi System
- This system was used because it was protected by patents, even though it was out of date
Nearby ship Californium told to “Get off” the air
How did the Titanic Disaster Change Radio
- Radio monopolies outlawed
- Federal Radio Act of 1912 - Fessenden’s Continuous Wave system was widely adopted after this
- Emergence of commercial and advertiser-supported radio broadcasting driven by Radio Corporation of America’s David Sarnoff
Anti-Free Market Developments
- Network broadcasts begin, 1926. National Broadcasting Company (NBC) founded by Radio Corporation of America (RCA)
- Federal Radio Commission 1928 General Order 40
- Created 25 clear channel stations
- ~700 independent and educational radio stations pushed off the air
CBS Mercury Theater
- Live radio dramas from 1938-1940
- Founded by Orson Welles and producer John Houseman
- War of the Worlds broadcast, October 30, 1938
- Commercial free
- Used clips from the news broadcasts to create realism
Newspaper vs. Radio, 1930s
Newspapers lose advertisers to radio
Radio ad revenue rises from 40-50%
Few radio reporters/journalists in 1930s
Edward R. Murrow (1908-1965)
- CBS, World News Roundup
- AP and Radio worked together to meet rising demand for war coverage
- He later transitioned to TV
Primetime TV has “insulated us from the realities of the world in which we live”
Father Charles Coughlin
- “Hate Speech” on the radio Weekly broadcasts 1926-1940; 16 million listeners in mid-1930s
- Anti communist, anti semitic, isolationist, conspiracy theorists
- Only sympathetic to Hitler Direct paraphrasing Nazi propaganda
Radio and Content Regulation:
- FCC Mayflower decision 1940
- FCC Blue book report 1946
- Fairness Doctrine 1947
FCC Mayflower decision 1940
“Full and equal opportunity for the presentation to the public all sides of public issues”
FCC Blue book report 1946
- Opposed to “shabby commercialism”
- Public service requirements
Fairness Doctrine 1947
required the holders of broadcast licenses to present controversial issues of public importance in an honest, equitable, and balanced manner
Television and Film relationship
Tv largely grows out of film, but there are key differences
Film
- Photochemically bases medium
- Started as mechanical and later electrical medium based on movement
- Mainly public amusement
- Main precursors: theater, photography
TV
- At first an electro-mechanical and later a fully electric medium
- Medium of domestic entertainment
- Main precursors: telegraph, telephone, radio
- The visual component is rooted from film
Film Spectatorship
- Theatrical exhibition; theatrical space imagines a particular type of spectator
- Break from everyday routines
- More affective/absorbing viewing
Television Spectatorship
- Domestic content
- Part of everyday life/routines
- Sometimes attentive, sometimes not
Both film and tv are audiovisual media..they are…..
Similar in certain ways…
…but very different in others
Federal Communications Commission (FCC):
Communications Act of 1934
Replaced Federal Radio Commission
What does FCC do?
it regulates interstate communication by radio, tv, wire, satellite, and cable
Paul Nipkow (German)
Nipkow Disc (1884) First electromechanical TV scanning system
Charles Jenkins (American)
First mechanical TV (‘radiovision’)
Transmutes moving TV images, 1923
Vladimir Zworykin (1888-1982)
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Kinescope (1929)
Philo Farnsworth (1906-1971)
Dissector Tube
Transmits first 60-line TV images, 1927
Files first TV patent, 1930
First public demonstration of TV (U.S.)
- Bell telephone and AT&T, 1927
- Speech by Herbert Hoover (then Secretary of Commerce)
- Image transmitted by wire and air
- Washington DC to New York City - LIVE!
Development of the TV was interrupted by what?
WW2
Broadcast Day
Segmented programming
Who watches tv programs at a particular time of the day & how to accommodate and exploit those schedules
Based in part on and driven by advertising
How programming is organized on the basis of who is watching
What was the schedule of broadcast day?
Early Morning = before 9 am Morning = 9-11 am Daytime = 12-7 pm Primetime = 8-11 pm Late night = 11pm-2am
Different times = different audiences
TV reflects people’s _____
existing schedules
TV creates _____.
new schedules
- appointment viewing
Why does tv exist as it does today?
- Tv is not primarily to entertain
- It exists to sell ads (and to teach us about consumption)
- Commercial funded medium
- This has shifted as the medium has developed
Single Sponsor TV (late 1940s-1950s)
Sponsors would make the programs: Texaco Star Theater, Gillette Cavalcade of Sports
- Few commercials
“Magazine Concept” Ads
- Multiple companies purchased ad space that would interrupt the flow of programming
- Creates an interruption in the programming
Two different “senses” / definitions of communication?
Transmission view and Ritual View
Transmission view
- Message / content-centered view
- Purpose of communication: to convey messages across space
Goals of transmission view
understanding; social control / compliance / persuasion (can spread political messages and gain support for certain ideas)
Ritual View
- message/content = less important
- Fact of communication = important
Purpose of communication = social glue; communication is something we do
Goals of ritual view
to maintain social bonds, values, traditions overtime
TV as a Cultural Forum
- Tv reflects and comments on culture’s hopes/dreams/values/conflicts
- Tv poses problems…but the solutions are often ambivalent
- Tv represents and challenges people’s beliefs/morals/values
Media Ideology:
Ways of thinking about different media that give them meaning
- Books vs TV
- Films vs internet video
Generic Ideologies:
Ways of thinking about and giving meaning to different media genres
Novels vs comic books Foreign films vs superhero movies Documentaries vs reality TV Different genres serve different commercial, industrial, and cultural purposes in TV - “Prestige” programming
Television and the FCC:
- Broadcasters use “public” airwaves
- TV is beholden and regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
- FCC regulates all non-federal government use of the “radio spectrum (radio and TV) and interstate communications
- Grants and can revoke broadcast licenses
- Renewal of contracts is often based on whether the license holder produces materials that serve the “public interest”
Television in the late 1950s:
- Fewer channels than we have today
- Dominated by variety programs, quiz shows, etc.
- Profit driven
The Quiz Show:
- Very popular during the 1950s
- Low production costs
- Everyday people competing for cash prizes
- A tradition that started in the radio
The Quiz Show Examples
The $64 question (radio)
The $64,000 question (TV 1955-58)
Twenty-One (TV 1956-58)
Twenty-One
- To make the program more entertaining, the producers started to coach the contestants, rigging the contests
- The program was carefully choreographed but presented as real (similar to reality TV)
- Once the “fixing” was revealed (1958), the show was discontinued
This was a big deal!!
Newton Minow, (1926-present)
Appointed FCC chair by John F. Kennedy in 1961
- Gave the “Vast Wasteland” speech, May 9, 1961, to National Association of Broadcasters
- The speech was a response to (over)-commercialization of TV
Minow, “Television and the Public Interest”
Minow threatened not to renew broadcast licenses if stations did not pay more attention to serving the public interest
Minow and Documentary
Documentary was exceptional television programming
Documentary (Genetic Ideology)
- Documentary has a reputation as an exceptionally sophisticated and thoughtful brand of TV
- A way for TV outlets to indicate that they care about and want to give back to the public
- It serves as public interest - Distances networks/sponsors from TV’s commercial and suspicious elements
Aftermath of Minow’s Speech:
Many networks started producing documentary programs to protect station licenses
Many documentaries examined controversial political and social issues that were not often discussed in commercial TV
CBS and the TV documentary
Started in the radio
“I Can Hear it Now” (1949)
CBS and See It Now
Produced by Fred Friendly
Lead correspondent Edward R. Murrow
Takes advantage of TV’s communicative potential to report on issues with greater depth and emotional effectiveness than typical print and radio journalism
Fred Friendly (1915-1998)
“What the American does not know can kill him”
CBS Reports:
Often covered very controversial issues, most noticeably the “Red Scare” spearheaded by Senator Joseph McCarthy
Murrow famously signed off with the line “Good night, and Good luck.”
Harvest of Shame (1960)
- Murrow’s finale documentary project for CBS reports
- Examines the plight of the American migrant worker
- Premiered the day after Thanksgiving: November 24, 1960
What is harvest of shames argument?
v
How can we plug harvest of shame into the debates of TV (Minow’s arguments, what tv should be, what it is, etc.)?
v
If you get together with friends every week to watch a particular TV show are you demonstrating “transmission” or “ritual”?
ritual
Cultural Forum:
- Shifts along with changes in the industry, culture, and politics
- Changes even more with the rise of streaming and social media
- On demand viewing
- Active audiences
From broadcast to cable TV:
- Changes in TV programming - 1975
- We go from about a dozen channels to hundreds of channels
Narrowcasting:
Focusing on more specific groups (than broadcasting)
Broadcasting was constrained for focus on _____.
larger groups
Narrowcasting could cater to more _____.
specific audiences with specific needs/desires
Different cultural practices accompany this technological and industrial shift
Politics and Narrowcasting:
Narrowcasting creates programming for more diverse audiences
ex. Lifetime, MTV, HGTV
Narrowcasting creates programming for more diverse audiences, but it also threatens to further marginalize those groups (The case of BET)
Cultural Forum and Narrowcasting
- Shifts along with the move to narrowcasting
- Different kinds of issues
- Different types of visibility
- Prestige TV
Cultural Forum and Digital Media:
Allows people to binge watch on netflix and hulu
Early advertising
- Town crier in midevil England
- Protestant Reformation was successful bc the power of printed text and images
- 1st printed text ad attributed to William Caxton for newly printed books
- ads for brand name products in 1600
What was the first newspaper?
“The Weekly News” 1622 - about a stolen horse
Relationship between muckrakers and advertising?
n
