Exam 2 Flashcards
__ memory refers to the memory system that is responsible for holding onto a small amount of information that has been recently taken in from the environment
Short-term
In what way does short-term memory have a limited capacity?
1) The amount of time that the short-term memory system can hold onto information
2) The amount of information that it can hold
__ memory has a large capacity and contains your memory for experiences and information that have accumulated throughout your lifetime
Long-term
What was George Miller’s perspective on the limitations of memory?
He proposed that we can hold only a limited number of items in short-term memory and that people can remember about seven items (give or take two: 5-9 items)
What is a chunk?
A memory unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with one another
What is the Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique?
- Involves presenting participants with some items that they are instructed to remember
- And then perform a distracting task
- And then asked to recall the original items
__ refers to the U-shaped relationship between a word’s position in a list and its probability of recall
Serial-position effect
What is the recency effect?
Better recall for items at the end of the list
What is the primacy effect?
Enhanced recall for items at the BEGINNING of the list
- they don’t need to compete with any earlier items
- people rehearse these early items more frequently
One additional factor that can influence short-term memory is __, (the meaning of words and sentences)
Semantics
What is proactive interference (PI)?
Trouble learning new material because previously learned material keeps interfering with their new learning
The number of items stored in short-term memory depends on both:
1) Chunking strategies
2) Word meaning
The __ is one approach to cognition, arguing that (a) our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer, and (b) information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time
Information-processing approach
The __ proposed that memory involves a sequence of separate steps. In each step, information is transferred from one storage area to another
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
__ memory is a storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy
Sensory
What are control processes?
Intentional strategies-such as rehearsal- that people may use to improve their memory
What is working memory?
Brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing; part of it also actively coordinates your ongoing mental activities
The __ proposed by Baddeley, our immediate memory is a multipart system that temporarily holds and manipulates information while we perform cognitive tasks
- multiple components for our working memory
Working-memory approach
The __ can process a limited number of sounds for a short period of time. It processes language and other sounds that you hear and sounds you make
Phonological loop
What is subvocalization?
When you silently pronounce the words that you are reading
What is acoustic confusions?
People are likely to confuse similar-sounding stimuli (i.e. make more errors when letters sound the same)
The __ processes both visual and spatial information
Visuospatial sketchpad
Neuroscience research on the central executive shows that the __ region of the cortex is the most active portion of the brain when people work on a wide variety of central executive tasks
Frontal
The __ serves as a temporary storehouse that can hold and combine information from your phonological loop, your visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory
Episodic buffer
__ memory focuses on your memories for events that happened to you personally; it allows you to travel backward in subjective time
Episodic
__ memory describes your organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge about words and other factual information
Semantic memory
__ memory refers to your knowledge about how to do something i.e. riding a bike
Procedural
The __ approach argues that deep, meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow, sensory kids of processing
Levels-of-processing / depth-of-processing
__ means that a stimulus is different from other memory traces
Distinctiveness
__ requires rich processing in terms of meaning and interconnected concepts
Elaboration
__ states that recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding
Encoding-specificity principle
In a __, recent exposure to a word increases the likelihood that you’ll think of this word when you are presented with a cue that could evoke many different words
Repetition priming task
A __ occurs when a variable has large effects on Test A, but little or no effects on Test B, also when it has one kind of effect if measured by Test A, and the opposite effect if measured by Test B
Dissociation
__ memory is your memory for events and issues related to yourself. It usually includes a verbal narrative
Autobiographical
A __ consists of your general knowledge or expectation, which is distilled from your past experiences with someone or something
Schema
What is a consistency bias?
We tend to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint i.e. “the way we were depends on the way we are”
- as a result, we UNDERESTIMATE how much we have changed throughout our lives
The process of trying to identify the origin of a particular memory is called __
Source monitoring
What are source-monitoring errors?
You make a mistake by thinking that Source A provided some information, when Source B actually provided this information
In __, you try to identify whether an event really occurred or whether you actually imagined this event
Reality monitoring
i.e. thinking that you told your friend about an an event being cancelled, but in reality you didn’t
__ refers to your memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event
Flashbulb memory i.e. Recalling in vivid detail of learning about 9/11
In the __, people first view an event and are then given misleading information about the event
Post-event misinformation effect
__ is when people have trouble recalling new material because previously learned/old material keeps interfering with new memories
Proactive interference
__ is when people have trouble recalling old material because some recently learned/new material keeps interfering with old memories
Retroactive interference
The __ approach to memory emphasizes that we construct knowledge by integrating new information with what we know
Constructivist approach
The __ states that pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items
Pollyanna Principle
People tend to rate unpleasant past events more positively with the passage of time, a phenomenon called the __
Positivity effect
__ proposes that recovered memories are actually incorrect memories. In other words, they are constructed stories about events that never occurred
False-memory perspective
When you use a __, you perform mental activities that can help to improve your encoding and retrieval
Memory strategy
__ shows that you will generally recall information more accurately if you process it at a deep level, rather than a shallow level
Levels of processing
By explaining a concept to yourself, you are using __
Elaboration
Simple __ is repeating the information you want to learn, you aren’t likely to benefit much in terms of accurate recall at some later point in time
Rehearsal
The __ is when you enhance long-term memory by relating the material to your own experiences
Self-reference effect
According to the __, the amount of information that you learn depends on the total time you devote to learning
Total-time hypothesis
What is distributed-practice effect?
You will remember more material if you spread your learning trials over time (spaced learning)
–> massed learning if you try cramming
What are desirable difficulties?
A learning situation that is somewhat challenging, but not too difficult
__ are mental strategies designed to improve your memory
Mnemonics
__ imagery can be a powerful strategy for enhancing memory. It is especially effective when: __
Visual;
the items that must be recalled are shown interacting with each other i.e. piano toast
In the __, you identify an English keyword that sounds similar to the new word you want to learn, then you create an image that links the keyword with the meaning of this new word
Keyword method
__ is when we combine several small units into larger units
Chunking
A __ is a system in which items are arranged in a series of classes, from the most general classes to the most specific
Hierarchy
A popular mnemonic that makes use of organization is the __; you take the first letter of each word you want to remember and then you compose a word or a sentence from those letters
First-letter technique
i.e. ROY G BIV
A method called the __ instructs people to make up stories that links a series of words together
Narrative technique
__ memory, is remembering information that you acquired in the past
Retrospective
__ memory, is remembering that you need to do something in the future
Prospective i.e. submitting assignment by noon
What is the best way to avoid prospective memory errors?
Provide yourself with reminders to complete a task at a certain point of time in the future
- must be distinctive if you want to perform a PM task
A(n) __ is defined as any device, external to yourself, that facilitates your memory in some way
External memory aid
i.e. shopping list
__ refers to your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes
Metacognition
The __ region of the cortex is more likely to be associated with the TIP OF THE TONGUE EFFECT, and the __ region is more likely to be associated with feeling-of-knowing effect
Right prefrontal; left prefrontal
__ refers to your thoughts about language comprehension; research focuses on reading rather than spoken speech
Metacomprehension
