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a&p 232 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What hormones does the hypothalamus secrete?

A 
4 Releasing Hormones:
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

2 Inhibiting Hormones:
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Somatostatin

2 Hormones Released into Posterior Pituitary:
Oxytocin (OT)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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2
Q

What hormones does the pituitary secrete?

A 
Anterior Pituitary Hormones:
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Growth hormone (GH)

Posterior Pituitary Hormones:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin (OT)

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3
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland secrete?

A

Melatonin

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4
Q

What hormones does the thymus secrete?

A

Thymopoietin
Thymosin
Thymulin

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5
Q

What hormones does the thyroid gland secrete?

A

Thyroxine (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T3)

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6
Q

What hormones do the parathyroid glands secrete?

A

Parathyroid hormone

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7
Q

What hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete?

A

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

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8
Q

What hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

Aldosterone
Cortisol and corticosterone
Androgens
Estradiol

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9
Q

What hormones do the pancreatic islets secrete?

A 
Glucagon (alpha cells)
Insulin (beta cells)
Somatostatin (delta cells)
Gastrin (G cells)
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP cells or F cells)
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10
Q

What hormones do the gonads secrete?

A

Ovaries:
Estradiol
Progesterone
Inhibin

Testes:
Testosterone
Inhibin

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11
Q

What are the effects of the releasing hormones of the hypothalamus: TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH?

A

Cause the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, PRL, ACTH, FSH, LH, and GH.

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12
Q

What are the effects of the inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus: PIH and somatostatin?

A

PIH inhibits the secretion of prolactin.

Somatostatin inhibits secretion of GH and TSH by the anterior pituitary.

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13
Q

What are the principal effects of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?

A

Female: stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogen
Male: stimulates sperm production
(Secreted by the anterior pituitary)

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14
Q

What are the principal effects of luteinizing hormone (LH)?

A

Female: stimulates ovulation, stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone (maintenance of corpus luteum)
Male: stimulates testosterone production
(Secreted by the anterior pituitary)

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15
Q

What are the principal effects of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

Secreted by the anterior pituitary

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16
Q

What are the principal effects of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids and androgens.

Secreted by the anterior pituitary

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17
Q

What are the principal effects of prolactin (PRL)?

A

Stimulates milk production (lactation).

Secreted by the anterior pituitary

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18
Q

What are the principal effects of growth hormone (GH)?

A

Widespread tissue growth; stimulates body growth and protein synthesis.
(Secreted by anterior pituitary)

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19
Q

What are the principal effects of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A 
Water retention (stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more water).
(Secreted by posterior pituitary, NOT produced by posterior pituitary).
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20
Q

What are the principal effects of oxytocin (OT)?

A

Stimulates labor contractions, milk release; possible involved in ejaculation, sperm transport, sexual affection, and mother-infant bonding.
(Secreted by posterior pituitary, NOT produced by posterior pituitary).

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21
Q

What are the principal effects of melatonin?

A

Involved in setting day/night cycles.

Secreted by pineal gland

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22
Q

What are the principal effects of thymopoietin, thymosin, and thymulin?

A

Stimulate T lymphocyte development and activity.

Secreted by the thymus

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23
Q

What are the principal effects of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothryonine (T3)?

A

Increases metabolic rate, O2 consumption, heat production (calorigenic effect), appetite, growth hormone secretion, alertness, quicker reflexes.
(Secreted by thyroid gland)

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24
Q

What are the principal effects of calcitonin?

A

Stimulates bone deposition, mainly in children.

Secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland

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25
Q

What are the principal effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

A

Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts (which break down bone), stimulating kidneys to reabsorb more calcium, and stimulates kidneys to convert vitamin D to calcitriol (required for absorption on calcium in the intestines).
(Secreted by parathyroid glands)

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26
Q

What are the principal effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

Mimics sympathetic nervous system activation, “fight or flight” response: increase alertness, prepare body for physical activity, increase blood glucose level by glycogenolysis (breaks down stored glycogen) or glyconeogenesis (creating glucose from noncarbohydrate substrates), inhibits insulin secretion, increases heart rate, increases BP, pulmonary airflow, metabolic rates.
(Secreted by the adrenal medulla).

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27
Q

What are the principal effects of aldosterone?

A

Promotes sodium and water retention, and potassium secretion, maintains BP and volume.
(Secreted by zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex)

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28
Q

What are the principal effects of cortisol and corticosterone?

A

Stimulate fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis, stress resistance, and tissue repair.
(Secreted by zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex)

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29
Q

What are the principal effects of androgens?

A

Females: contribute to body growth, development of pubic and axillary hair, and enhance sex drive.
Males: insignificant effect.
Most androgens are converted to testosterone and some to estrogen .Includes DHEA, which other tissues convert to testosterone.
(Secreted by zona reticularis of adrenal cortex)

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30
Q

What are the principal effects of glucagon?

A

Stimulates amino acid absorption, gluconeogenesis, glycogen and fat breakdown; raises blood glucose and fatty acid levels (especially important between meals).
(Secreted by alpha cells of pancreas)

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31
Q

What are the principal effects of insulin?

A

Stimulates amino acid uptake; lowers blood glucose levels; promotes glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis.
(Secreted by beta cells of pancreas)

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32
Q

What are the principal effects of somatostatin?

A

Partially suppresses the secretion of glucagon and insulin; inhibits nutrient digestion and absorption, which prolongs absorption of nutrients.
(Secreted by delta cells of pancreas)

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33
Q

What are the principal effects of gastrin?

A

Stimulates acid secretion and gastric motility.

Secreted by G cells of pancreas

34
Q

What are the principal effects of pancreatic polypeptide?

A

Inhibits gallbladder and intestinal contractions, and secretion of stomach acid and pancreatic digestive enzymes.
(Secreted by PP cells/F cells of pancreas)

35
Q

What are the principal effects of estradiol?

A

Stimulates female reproductive development and adolescent growth; regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy; prepares mammary glands for lactation.
(Secreted by ovaries)

36
Q

What are the principal effects of progesterone?

A

Regulates menstrual cycle and pregnancy; prepares mammary glands for lactation; maintains condition of uterus for potential implantation and forestalls ovulation.
(Secreted by ovaries)

37
Q

What are the principal effects of inhibin? (ovaries)

A

Inhibits FSH secretion.

Secreted by ovaries

38
Q

What are the principal effects of testosterone?

A

Stimulates fetal and adolescent reproductive development, musculoskeletal growth, sperm production, and sex drive.
(Secreted by testes)

39
Q

What are the principal effects of inhibin? (testes)

A

Limits FSH secretion in order to regulate sperm production.

Secreted by testes

40
Q

Hyposecretion

A

Inadequate hormone release
Examples: head trauma that affects anterior pituitary secretion of ADH, which could lead to diabetes insipidus; autoimmune diseases when endocrine cells are attacked by autoantibodies

41
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

A

Chronic polyuria (abundant glucose-free urine output)

42
Q

Hypersecretion

A

Excessive hormone release

43
Q

Pheochromocytoma

A

A tumor of the adrenal medulla that secretes excessive epinephrine and norepinephrine.

44
Q

Gigantism

A

Hypersecretion of GH in childhood or adolescence

45
Q

Pituitary Dwarfism

A

Hyposecretion of GH in childhood

46
Q

Acromegaly

A

Hypersecretion of GH in adulthood; thickening of bones and soft tissues in adults, especially hands, feet, and face.

47
Q

Congenital Hypothyroidism

A

TH hyposecretion present from birth.

Results in stunted physical development, thickened facial features, low body temp., lethargy.

48
Q

Myxedema

A

Severe or prolonged hypothyroidism.

Characterized by low metabolic rate, sluggishness, sleepiness, weight gain. hypertension.

49
Q

Endemic Goiter

A

Results from a deficiency in iodine.

50
Q

Toxic Goiter (Graves Disease)

A

Thyroid hypertrophy and hypersecretion, occurring when autoantibodies mimic the effect of TSH and overstimulate the thyroid.

51
Q

Hypoparathyroidism

A

Surgical excision during thyroid surgery.

Causes rapid decline in blood calcium level, leads to fatal tetany.

52
Q

Hyperparathyroidism

A

Excess PTH secretion, usually caused by parathyroid tumor.

Causes the bones to become soft, fragile, and deformed.

53
Q

Cushing Syndrome

A

Excess cortisol secretion.
Causes: ACTH hypersecretion by the pituitary, ACTH secreting tumors
Disrupts carbohydrate and protein metabolism, leading to hyperglycemia, hypertension, muscular weakness, and edema.
Moon face, buffalo hump - abnormal fat deposits.

54
Q

Adrenogenital Syndrome

A

Hypersecretion of adrenal androgens, often accompanies Cushing Syndrome.
Causes enlargement of external sexual organs in children and early onset of puberty.

55
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

A disruption of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, resulting from the hyposecretion or inaction of insulin.
Blood glucose levels are high, and glucose enters the kidney tubules so rapidly that they can’t reabsorb it fast enough (exceeds the transport maximum). Excess glucose enters urine and water follows it, causing osmotic diuresis. Large amounts of water passed in urine, causing polyuria, dehydration, and thirst.

56
Q

Type I Diabetes Mellitus

A

Causes: hereditary susceptibility if infected with certain viruses, then autoantibodies attack and destroy pancreatic beta cells.

57
Q

Type II Diabetes Mellitus

A

Insulin resistance - unresponsiveness of the target cells to the hormone.

58
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

Consistent way the body reacts to stress.

Typically involves elevated levels of norepinephrine and glucocorticoids.

59
Q

The Alarm Reaction

A 
Stage 1 of General Adaptation Syndrome.
Initial response to stress.
Hormones/neurotransmitters involved: norephinephrine and epinephrine.
Prepares the body to fight/flight.
Stored glycogen is consumed.
60
Q

The Stage of Resistance

A

Stage 2 of General Adaptation Syndrome.
After a few hours, glycogen reserves are gone, but the brain still needs glucose. Priority is to provide alternate fuels for metabolism.
Hormones/neurotransmitters involved: cortisol
Promotes breakdown of fat and protein into glycerol, fatty acids, and amino acids for gluconeogenesis.
Cortisol has glucose-sparing effect - inhibits protein synthesis, leaving free amino acids for gluconeogenesis.

61
Q

The Stage of Exhaustion

A

Stage 3 of General Adaptation Syndrome.
When stress continues for several months, and fat reserves are gone, homeostasis is overwhelmed; marked by rapid decline and death.
Fat stores are gone, relies on protein breakdown for energy.
Adrenal cortex stops produce glucocorticoids, leads to loss of glucose homeostasis.
Aldosterone promotes water retention, creates a state of hypertension. Leads to alkalosis.
Death results from heart and kidney infection.

62
Q

Primary Polycythemia

A

High RBC count due to a cancer of erythropoietic cell line.

63
Q

Secondary Polycythemia

A

High RBC count due to dehydration, emphysema, high altitude, or physical conditioning.

64
Q

Anemia

A

Anything that disrupts the oxygen carrying capacity of RBCs

65
Q

Pernicious Anemia

A

Inadequate vitamin B12

66
Q

Hypoplastic Anemia

A

Caused by a decline in erythropoiesis

67
Q

Aplastic Anemia

A

Caused by a cessation of erythropoiesis

68
Q

Hemorrhagic Anemia

A

From bleeding

69
Q

Hemolytic Anemia

A

From RBC destruction

70
Q

Sickle Cell Disease

A

Hereditary hemoglobin defects, causing oxygen to not bind well to the hemoglobin. Clump together and block small vessels.

71
Q

Hemophilia

A

A family of hereditary diseases characterized by deficiencies of one factor or another.

72
Q

Hemophilia A

A

Missing factor VIII

73
Q

Hemophilia B

A

Missing factor IX

74
Q

Leukopenia

A

Low WBC count.
Causes: radiation, poisons, infectious disease.
Effects: high risk of infection.
(HIV)

75
Q

Leukocytosis

A

High WBC count.
Causes: infection, allergy, disease.
Differential WBC count useful here to identify what types of leukocytes are greater in number than normal, to possibly identify type of infection.

76
Q

Leukemia

A

WBC cancer.

Produces an extraordinary high number of leukocytes, which never reach full maturation.

77
Q

Myeloid Leukemia

A

Uncontrolled granulocyte production.

78
Q

Lymphoid Leukemia

A

Uncontrolled monocyte or lymphocyte production.

79
Q

Acute Leukemia

A

Appears suddenly, progresses rapidly, death within months.

80
Q

Chronic Leukemia

A

Undetected for months, survival time 3 years.

a&p 232 (6 decks)

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