Exam #2

Question 1

all the stuff that is currently active is an example of __________

Answer 1

working memory

Question 2

we share this with animals

Answer 2

Visual Spatial Sketchpad:

Question 3

language expands what we can do with _________

Answer 3

phonological loop.

Question 4

_________ keeps track of what you’re doing, keep track of what you’re up to. It directs traffic, causes you to do particular actions. (blocks everything but what you’re currently think of. It is the voice in your head. (it’s perfectly okay to hear voices in your head as long as you understand it is you talking to yourself))

Answer 4

central executive

Question 5

_______- keeps track what occurred before what event and what occurred before what event just in case Central Executive missed it.

Answer 5

Episodic Buffer

Question 6

By your late ____ you brain is visibly slowing.
There is no question working memory slows as we age.

Biggest problem is dynamic association or dynamic updating (changing actions or attention on the fly).

Answer 6

20’s

Question 7

We can determine what part of the brain handles paying attention to what we’re doing by looking for brain activity while having people do tasks that require that ability.
_____ _____ appears to involve the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Answer 7

Dynamic updating

Question 8

FYI : Maintaining attention on things we’re are already monitoring appears to involve the ventral lateral prefrontal cortex

Answer 8

FYI

Question 9

Older folks show less/more (pick one) dorsolateral prefrontal lobe activity

Answer 9

less

Question 10

____: keep track of what you’re doing.
(You get into your 60’s and 70’s and you cannot keep up with rapid stimuli. Ex: old people driving, they do not push the break as fast.)

Answer 10

Prefrontal cortex

Question 11

Things that ____ deterioration of working memory:

• Training in attention shifting tasks
• Becoming bilingual
• Playing a musical instrument
• Aerobic Exercise

Answer 11

reduce

Question 12

_____ ____ is the best predictor of programming skill acquisition (the ones that have the best working memory were better at computer coding)

Answer 12

Working Memory

Question 13

• Experts modifying large programs are exposed to more details than memory can ___.
• Programmers still can retrieve details by mentally scrolling back. (they do not use working memory as much, they go back to long term memory. Even with a huge working memory you cannot go back and tell yourself that you will fix this, this and this)

Answer 13

retain.

Question 14

______ : requires processing one stream while ignoring another.

Answer 14

Air Traffic Control

Question 15

___ aircraft have potential conflicts

Answer 15

“Focal”

Question 16

_____ aircraft are temporarily safe

Answer 16

“Extra-focal”

Question 17

-Avoidance of air-traffic conflicts the goal
_____ retains initial problem state, intermediate solutions, goal state
-Memory has to be updated each time a solution step is completed

Answer 17

working memory

Question 18

______ ____ : is the knowledge of the present and future air traffic situation
Known as “the picture”

Answer 18

Situation Awareness

Question 19

________ ____ : Includes fixed properties of the task (like boundaries and procedures) and dynamic properties (like spatial and temporal relationships of planes)

Answer 19

Situation Awareness

Question 20

-Working Memory Elements
Objects- oncoming aircraft, aircraft changing levels, proximal aircraft
-Events- potential conflicts of a chain or crossing kind
-Control Elements- selecting sources of data, planning, anticipation, conflict resolution, action

Answer 20

Air Traffic Control

Question 21

Voice Communications: Understand and producing voice communications requires _____ ____ space to hold entire utterances

Answer 21

working memory

Question 22

Phonological confusions can be _____

Answer 22

problematic

Question 23

Structural Interference:

___ places heavy demands on spatial working memory.

Answer 23

ATC

Question 24

Concurrent manual spatial tasks, such as writing on and arranging flight strips, can interfere with ____ ____

Answer 24

spatial memory

Question 25

But concurrent verbal tasks don’t/do (pick one) load on spatial memory

Answer 25

don’t

Question 26

____ ____ is used to hold the problem itself, and partial solutions like carries

Answer 26

Working memory

Question 27

Solution times and likelihood of being correct hinges on number of items such as carries stored in _____ during the solving task

Answer 27

memory

Question 28

Amount of ____ ___ ____ required to be stored also affected problem success

Answer 28

initial problem information

Question 29

• McClean and Hitch measured phonological loop, visuo-spatial, and central executive performance with various tasks, then compared people good and bad at mental math
• There was/wasn’t (pick one) a difference in performance on the phonological loops between those good and poor at mental math

Answer 29

wasn’t a difference

Question 30

Dark & Benbow (1991) found that those good at mental math were more efficient in putting numbers on the ____ ____

Answer 30

visuospatial sketchpad

Question 31

Ashcraft found that, while doing mental arithmetic, people keep track of both numbers and number position on the _____ _____ , esp, for problems requiring carries

Answer 31

visuospatial sketchpad

Question 32

But Heathcote (1994) found that people keep partial results on the ____ ____ while doing math

Answer 32

phonological loop

Question 33

Suggest that the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad work in ____ with each other

Answer 33

parallel

Question 34

The capacity of the phonological loop is overwhelmed by most problems, requiring reliance on the ____ ____ ____

Answer 34

visuo-spatial sketchpad

Question 35

Fuerst & Hitch (2000) found that making people repeat a syllable over and over, clogging the phonological loop, interfered with ___ ___ . But interference diminished if problem information was made continuously available, suggesting the loop is also used for initial problem representation.

Answer 35

problem solution.

Question 36

Concurrent phonological tasks and concurrent visual tasks both interfere with mental math, suggesting both the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad ___ ____ in solving such problems

Answer 36

work together

Question 37

Logie et al (1994) found that the greatest interference came from loading the ____ ___

Answer 37

central executive.

Question 38

The ____ ____ apparently keeps track of when to carry and retrieves number facts. (the ___ ___ is keeping track of when to carry, which numbers to combine, and if you load it down you cannot keep track of that either)

Answer 38

central executive

Question 39

Dahaene, el al. argue that during ___ ___ , numbers are represented

1. In a visual arabic form in the visuospatial scratchpad
2. In a verbal, phonological code.
3. In an analog spatial representation that expresses magnitude and contributes approximate solutions

Answer 39

mental math

Question 40

___ ___ appears to impair calculation by impairing efficiency of the central executive in executing procedures such as carrying.
This is due to intrusive thought and distracting info competing for limited executive resources

Answer 40

Math anxiety

Question 41

____ ____ ____ : in using ATMs, such as failure to remove one’s card, appear to occur when working memory heavily loaded
-Led to redesigns where card is returned before cash is dispensed

Answer 41

Post completion error

Question 42

Phone menus adopted ____ ____ ____, where no more than 3 options are presented at a time and we go deeper into the menu for more options instead to ease working memory stress. (general rule is you have no more than 3 options at a time, then you will have to go through different menus . Ex: there are 9 options, you will go through 3 different phrases. Disadvantage: it hangs up on you and now you have to call and go through all the menus.

Answer 42

“deep menu hierarchies”

Question 43

___ _____ used have more trouble with concurrent tasks such as shunting between multiple windows

Answer 43

Elderly computer

Question 44

Elderly users do better when tasks are made ______ , thus reducing pressure on working memory (ex: at a restaurant, elderly can only do one thing at a time, burgers first, then nachos, then tacos. While young people can do it all at a time)

Answer 44

serial (one at a time)

Question 45

Meyer & Kieras created EPIC (Executive Process/Interactive Control) to ___ ______ ____

Answer 45

imitate human-machine interaction

Question 46

___ has a visuospatial and auditory working memory store, along with task-specific control processes (rather than the human central executive). (In SH the maintenance and facility people tried out a new water fountain, it turned on with a sensor (people on wheelchair) the sensor was slow. It took it about a second to run and this second was crucial.)

Answer 46

EPIC

Question 47

___ are retrieved from long-term memory to be applied to each task

Answer 47

“Productions”

Question 48

• Actions then are executed while load on the memories is assessed
• Models human performance in testing software designs, especially ___ ___

Answer 48

Motor responses

Question 49

Visuo-spatial working memory tasks impair performance on perceptuomotor tasks of games but not ___ ___

Answer 49

verbal components.

Question 50

Verbal working memory tasks impair verbal elements of games but not _____ ___

Answer 50

perceptuo-motor performance.

Question 51

____ ___ is used at each step to enable a comparison between the goal of the operation and the actual effect of it.

Answer 51

Working memory

Question 52

Referent input (feedback) of the current state is fed into ___ ___ and signals the extent of tasks completion so working memory essential to correctional adjustments of actions (keeping track of where we are, and where the goal is it is hard on the central executive)

Answer 52

working memory

Question 53

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables so meaning wouldn’t confound his results
Bartlett noted ____ was central to most memory, thus eliminating its effects was artificial.

Answer 53

meaning

Question 54

-Laboratory tests may involve experiences not particularly meaningful to our lives.
Lab studies focus on ____ rather than ____ aspects of memory

Answer 54

quantitive; qualitative

Question 55

People can remember names of __ of high school classmates even 50 years after leaving class

Answer 55

70%

Question 56

Much autobiographical memory reaches ____ status

Answer 56

“permastore”

Question 57

Researchers who kept a diary were able to recall up to ___ of memories over a 6 year period, with those that had been previously tested being recalled the best.

Answer 57

half

Question 58

• People in their 70’s recall memories in ____ ____ and ___ ___ better than those of their 40’s and 50’s.
• Early years may have more “firsts” & more meaningful events recalled more often.

Answer 58

late childhood ; early adulthood

Question 59

Memories related to odor park at - years of age

Answer 59

6-10

Question 60

When reviewing memories, people regret most things they ___ ___ than those __ __, but in reviewing recent memories, they regret the things they ___ ___ than those they __ ___

Answer 60

• didn’t do ; they did

- did more ; they didn’t do

Question 61

• Most remember nothing at all from their first __ - __ years.
• Psychoanalysts argue this is a repression of anxiety, but this would not explain failure to remember happy memories.

Answer 61

2-3 years

Question 62

Infants and toddlers probably lack the ___ to organize and store memories, and what ___ they have probably don’t match those used later.

Answer 62

schemas

Question 63

The ___ ___ may be too immature to create autobiographical memories

Answer 63

prefrontal cortex

Question 64

-_____ memory may require a sense of self to be learned first.

Answer 64

Autobiographical

Question 65

Some ___ may remember more early memories.

Answer 65

cultures

Question 66

_____ ____ : We tend to remember many specific details of the surroundings when we experience shocking events.
-Brown and Kulik argue for a special memory system that records everything in shocking circumstances.

Answer 66

Flashbulb memories

Question 67

Others have argued that such memories are strong because of frequent ___

Answer 67

retrieval.

Question 68

___ may involve flashbulb memory for the traumatic event

Answer 68

PTSD

Question 69

Frequent retrieval of the disturbing event keeps it strong and vivid in sufferers, and their ____ ___ don’t just like normal people do.

Answer 69

limbic systems

Question 70

• ____ _____ : Recent DNA testing has voided convictions of hundreds convicted by eyewitness testimony.
• Prior knowledge and expectations strongly affect eyewitness testimony, as Bartlett noted.

Answer 70

eyewitness memories

Question 71

_____ ___ contamination and interference increase with the passage of time, probably because memories are weaker with time and more easily interfered with.

Answer 71

Eyewitness memory

Question 72

When memories are ___ but a section is left out during that ___, that section weakens in later ___ and may be omitted

Answer 72

recalled ; recall ; recall

Question 73

causes of contamination : ___ memories are easily implanted in people by suggesting they should remember them

Answer 73

False

Question 74

• Accurate memories may be replaced by ____ ___

- ___ induced forgetting may block ___ of the correct memory once the incorrect one is retrieved several times.

Answer 74

inaccurate memories ; Retrieval

Question 75

• TV shows, movies often depict officers cleverly tricking people into confessions
• In reality, almost ___ people confess even when cornered, and ____ ___ often confess.

Answer 75

no guilty ; innocent people

Question 76

False confession: People being questioned will glean details from the questioning
Then they imagine themselves doing the ___.

Answer 76

crime.

Question 77

• Through source ____, then they lose track of how they knew that information, assume it came from personal experience
• Police have little incentive to question and confession

Answer 77

misattribution

Question 78

• Children are more susceptible to leading questions and planted information, and their memories _____ more quickly.
• Even experts can’t distinguish true and false memories of children.

Answer 78

deteriorate

Question 79

• The ____ make more memory mistakes than young adults

- The ____ are more likely to lose track of sources of information.

Answer 79

elderly

Question 80

___ narrows the attentional spotlight, so we focus moe intently on fewer stimuli.

Answer 80

Stress

Question 81

• ___ increases our memory of that focus item, reduces it for everything else.
• ____ often attract most attention to them.

Answer 81

stress ; weapons

Question 82

• ___ increases our memory of that focus item, reduces it for everything else.
• ____ often attract most attention to them.

Answer 82

stress ; weapons

Question 83

• Juries and judges are strongly impressed by confidence of witnesses, trust them more
• Confidence is/is not (pick one) related to accuracy of a memory

Answer 83

IS NOT

Question 84

Confidence mostly determined by how many times you’ve ___ a memory

Answer 84

recalled

Question 85

• Your memories and memories of others are strongly affected by _____ ___
• You can’t trust eyewitnesses much at all without corroboration.

Answer 85

subsequent information.

Question 86

Eye witness recommendations:

• Statements should be taken ___ after the event
• Interviewers must ask ___ ___ and not intrude information.

Answer 86

ASAP ; neutral questions

Question 87

___ strength is very different from ___ strength, so strong memories may not necessarily be retrieved, and weak ones sometimes can be retrieved easily.

May lead us to overestimate our memory ability based on storage strength

Answer 87

Storage ; retrieval

Question 88

______ : Making a sentence of the first letter of each word

Answer 88

Acrostics

Question 89

____ : spelling a word from the first letter of each word

Answer 89

Acronyms

Question 90

_____ ____ ___ ___: the world’s oldest known mnemonic, attributed to Greek poet Simonides, who remembered the locations of everyone in a collapsed building.

Answer 90

The method of loci

Question 91

Rhymes or alliteration: “Thirty days has September, April, June, and November“

Answer 91

rhymes

Question 92

Alliteration or rhyme: “red, right, returning” to remember the marker lighting on ships and planes.

Answer 92

alliteration

Question 93

The ____ ____ : Associated each item in an image with the remembered thyme, “one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, etc.”

Answer 93

The peg-word system

Question 94

The keyword system: For language learning– you make the ____ ____ into an image that reminds you of an English word “stand on a chair, you can see a loose light.”

Answer 94

foreign word

Question 95

• Techniques for remembering material that is essentially meaningless.
• Create ____ that allows such material to be imagined, elaborated, or organized

Answer 95

meaning

Question 96

-Chase and Ericsson expanded the number span of student SF, who developed a memory span of 80 digits by linking groups to ___ ___

Answer 96

race times.

Question 97

Chase & Ericsson suggested skillful memory involved:
1.
2.
3.

Answer 97

1. Meaningful encoding
2. Structured retrieval
3. Practice

Question 98

Expert Mnemonists:

• Some also have natural gifts for ___ ___, such as Lauria’s “S”
• Modern day cases also exist, including the 6 reported on 60 minutes in 2011.

Answer 98

eidetic imagery

Question 99

• Probability of retrieval ___ when we are in the same context and setting as the original learning
• We perform better if tested in the ___ ___ ___

Answer 99

• increases

- original learning setting

Question 100

• ___ ___ might cause more interference, spaced practice allowing us to separate material more clearly.
• Fatigue factors may set in during ____ ___

Answer 100

Massed practice

Question 101

___ ___ linking material to the material already known

Answer 101

Elaborative rehearsal:

Question 102

___ ___ : merely repeating material to keep the trace alive in working memory

Answer 102

Maintenance rehearsal

Question 103

• Craik and Lockhart argued for ___ ___ ___

- The more deeply material is processed, the more likely it will be remembered

Answer 103

“levels of processing:

Question 104

Factors in performance: For ____ ___ , the interval between retrieval should be long enough to make subsequent retrieval difficult but not impossible

Answer 104

optimal learning

Question 105

-Landauer and Bjork found that ___ ___ increases memory better if time interval is steadily increased subsequent sessions

Answer 105

retrieval space

Question 106

• ___ ___ : The main reason concrete words remembered better than abstract words
• Images allow dual encoding of concrete words

Answer 106

Visual Imagery

Question 107

Retrieval-Induced Forgetting:
-Could be applied to phobias by having the person imagine non-fear responses to the object over and over, thus inhibiting the ___ ___

Answer 107

fear response.

Question 108

___ ___ also could be treated by having the person practice calm responses to the triggered stimuli

Answer 108

Panic attacks

Question 109

When a group of items is learned than a subset is practiced intensely at the last minute, recall of the ___ ____ is inhibited.

Effects disappear after about 24 hours, suggesting questioning should be spaced out for best results.

• Thus, last minute cramming before exams may be counterproductive

Answer 109

unpracticed material

Question 110

Recalling specific items from a category repeatedly led to ___ memory for other items from that category that has been recalled less

-Appears to be active suppression over the short run aiding survival value

Answer 110

lower

Question 111

____ questioning may retrieve some facts but not others, repressing them and biasing the content witness remember

Answer 111

Eyewitness

Question 112

Exam Preparation: You might ask yourself likely ___ , create retrieval cues in advance for them
You might associate material with position in the ___ ___

Answer 112

questions ; exam room

Question 113

Removing Retrieval Blocks:

• Relaxation and diversionary activities may help
• ___ may help, where you write on paper everything you can remember about the topic, no matter how vague.

Answer 113

Scribbling

Question 114

Organization:
-Performance ____ when people group items

-Performance goes ___ as number of groups does, but peaks at about 7 categories.

Answer 114

increases ; higher

Question 115

During _____ ____, we just keep re-activating the same links we did before because they’re still fresh, whereas in spaced practice we activate different links, creating more elaborated traces.

Answer 115

massed practice

Question 116

If ___ is patchy, you can sometimes find retrieval cues by asking yourself question about the topic.

___ ___ may occur when you keep pulling up the wrong link

Answer 116

recall ; Retrieval blocks

Question 117

Frequent retrieval of one particular trace ____ its access to the retrieval routes access to rival traces.

One consequence is that retrieving the ___ ___ repeatedly works against learning the right one.
Ex: Children adding by counting on fingers learn faster than those prevented from doing so.

Answer 117

increases ; wrong answer

Question 118

____________________

1. Context Restatement- The witness is asked to describe the scene and surroundings, in hope this will cue more memory from context (what they wore, what they were doing, what the weather was, what the surroundings were).
2. Report Everything- anything might be a cue to an important memory
3. Recall from a changed perspective- a different view may cue different memories
4. Recall in reverse order

Many police officers have adopted the first two parts, but not the last two, because they feel it doesn’t add much and takes too much time

Answer 118

Giselman’s Cognitive Interview

Question 119

_________ : significantly increases amount of detail recalled. It also increases false material recalled slightly but significantly.

Answer 119

The Cognitive Interview

Question 120

Children under 6 find the ______ confusing.

It doesn’t work as well when long retention intervals are involved (more than a few days)

Answer 120

The Cognitive Interview

Question 121

____________
“A sample will only resemble, or be representative of a, population if the former is sufficiently large.”

The bigger the sample, the closer our estimated frequency resembles the actual frequency

Answer 121

The Law of Large Numbers

Question 122

______- if we sample more and more things we are more likely to get an average.

Belief that a particular proportion will be evident after taking sufficiently large sample
The smaller the number in the sample relative to the total group, the more samples vary from the ______

Answer 122

The Law of Average

Question 123

Probabilities generally expressed in ____

Answer 123

percentages

Question 124

Events are ______ of each occurrence has no influence on the probability of the next one.

The probability of independent events occurring together (conjunction) is the product of the probability of each event. (fancy way of saying must multiply them together).

The probability of one independent event occurring or the other one (disjunction) is the sum of each probability.

Answer 124

independent

Question 125

_________ The belief that a small sample can represent a large group (if you had a defective Toyota, that means they can be trusted)

Answer 125

The Representativeness Heuristic

Question 126

_________ The belief that past independent events influence current ones (I’ve lost continuously, so I’m due to wim)
Ex: I’m loosing too many times. I’m bound to win. (it’s not logical thinking)

Answer 126

The Gambler’s Fallacy

Question 127

_________ The belief that the odds of two things happening together can be greater than the odds of the individual events (Kahneman’s study where people think the odds a person is a WOW player and a fan of LOTR is greater than they’re merely one of them)

Answer 127

The Conjunction Fallacy

Question 128

______ are poor at stimulating random events

• You flip a coin 6 times– are you more likely to get HTHTHT or HTTHHT?
• Unlikely events are far more common than people realize, because they equate “unlikely” with “impossible”

Answer 128

A: Humans,

Randomness

Question 129

_______: we tend to judge how likely an event is by whether we can readily retrieve examples of it

Answer 129

The availability Heuristic

Question 130

_______ : We tend to believe that extreme values predict more extreme values, so that tall parents will have even taller children

In fact, the odds are that we won’t get together all the things that made the parents tall in their offspring, so they’ll tend to be shorter than the parents

Answer 130

Regression to the Mean

Question 131

______ People may play because the cost is close enough to zero that expected utility is seen as positive, or because they get excitement and fun worth the investment.

Answer 131

Winning the Lottery

Question 132

____ increases lottery participation just as it increases exercise and buying

Answer 132

Music

Question 133

The_________ may play a role– we can retrieve example of winners readily

Answer 133

availability heuristic

Question 134

____ fail to appreciate randomness- numbers spaced 5 part just as likely to win as 6 scattered numbers

Answer 134

Players

Question 135

Trying to pick numbers based on past winners is an example of the ________

Answer 135

gambler’s fallacy

Question 136

____ prefer choosing personal, non-random numbers to random picks

Answer 136

People

Question 137

____ often have an illusion of control, believe skill is involved in selecting numbers

Answer 137

People

Question 138

Near misses may create enjoyable excitement similar to that of winning, thus _____ play.

Answer 138

reinforcing

Question 139

the ________ : people believe they have to continue playing because they’ve already sunk so much into it already. ( I can’t quit now, I have already invested so much money in this, it would make what I spent earlier worthless)

Answer 139

sunk cost bias

Question 140

The odds two people with share a birthday in a group of 23 people is 50% (70% for 30 people)

Even ___ ___ will coincide by chance given enough people to experience them

Answer 140

rare events

Question 141

People believe in precognition or telepathy in dreams because of _____ ___

Yet given multiple dreams a night by millions of people, odds are nearly 100% that such coincidences will happen.

____ ____ also plays a role– we forget the parts that don’t fit.

Answer 141

past experience

Selective forgetting

Question 142

____ ____ may increase belief– thinking we control things appears to give rise to the conclusion that we actually did control the outcome.

Answer 142

Perceived control

Question 143

There are three possible outcomes of ____ _____– the patient gets worse, stays the same, or gets better.

⅔ of these outcomes can be seen as positive support for the treatment

Even if the treatment fails, the observers will probably argue that it was simply too late, so no evidence of the treatment failing is ever collected.

Answer 143

Quack treatment

Question 144

______ : its the something. no matter how you phrase it the outcome is still the same.

Answer 144

Framing

Question 145

People asked questions and asked their confidence they were right on each one. Others were given the questions and asked the odds they’d have given the right answer.

______ led to greater confidence the person would have been right.

Answer 145

Hindsight