Exam #2 Flashcards
all the stuff that is currently active is an example of __________
working memory
we share this with animals
Visual Spatial Sketchpad:
language expands what we can do with _________
phonological loop.
_________ keeps track of what you’re doing, keep track of what you’re up to. It directs traffic, causes you to do particular actions. (blocks everything but what you’re currently think of. It is the voice in your head. (it’s perfectly okay to hear voices in your head as long as you understand it is you talking to yourself))
central executive
_______- keeps track what occurred before what event and what occurred before what event just in case Central Executive missed it.
Episodic Buffer
By your late ____ you brain is visibly slowing.
There is no question working memory slows as we age.
Biggest problem is dynamic association or dynamic updating (changing actions or attention on the fly).
20’s
We can determine what part of the brain handles paying attention to what we’re doing by looking for brain activity while having people do tasks that require that ability.
_____ _____ appears to involve the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Dynamic updating
FYI : Maintaining attention on things we’re are already monitoring appears to involve the ventral lateral prefrontal cortex
FYI
Older folks show less/more (pick one) dorsolateral prefrontal lobe activity
less
____: keep track of what you’re doing.
(You get into your 60’s and 70’s and you cannot keep up with rapid stimuli. Ex: old people driving, they do not push the break as fast.)
Prefrontal cortex
Things that ____ deterioration of working memory:
- Training in attention shifting tasks
- Becoming bilingual
- Playing a musical instrument
- Aerobic Exercise
reduce
_____ ____ is the best predictor of programming skill acquisition (the ones that have the best working memory were better at computer coding)
Working Memory
- Experts modifying large programs are exposed to more details than memory can ___.
- Programmers still can retrieve details by mentally scrolling back. (they do not use working memory as much, they go back to long term memory. Even with a huge working memory you cannot go back and tell yourself that you will fix this, this and this)
retain.
______ : requires processing one stream while ignoring another.
Air Traffic Control
___ aircraft have potential conflicts
“Focal”
_____ aircraft are temporarily safe
“Extra-focal”
-Avoidance of air-traffic conflicts the goal
_____ retains initial problem state, intermediate solutions, goal state
-Memory has to be updated each time a solution step is completed
working memory
______ ____ : is the knowledge of the present and future air traffic situation
Known as “the picture”
Situation Awareness
________ ____ : Includes fixed properties of the task (like boundaries and procedures) and dynamic properties (like spatial and temporal relationships of planes)
Situation Awareness
-Working Memory Elements
Objects- oncoming aircraft, aircraft changing levels, proximal aircraft
-Events- potential conflicts of a chain or crossing kind
-Control Elements- selecting sources of data, planning, anticipation, conflict resolution, action
Air Traffic Control
Voice Communications: Understand and producing voice communications requires _____ ____ space to hold entire utterances
working memory
Phonological confusions can be _____
problematic
Structural Interference:
___ places heavy demands on spatial working memory.
ATC
Concurrent manual spatial tasks, such as writing on and arranging flight strips, can interfere with ____ ____
spatial memory
But concurrent verbal tasks don’t/do (pick one) load on spatial memory
don’t
____ ____ is used to hold the problem itself, and partial solutions like carries
Working memory
Solution times and likelihood of being correct hinges on number of items such as carries stored in _____ during the solving task
memory
Amount of ____ ___ ____ required to be stored also affected problem success
initial problem information
- McClean and Hitch measured phonological loop, visuo-spatial, and central executive performance with various tasks, then compared people good and bad at mental math
- There was/wasn’t (pick one) a difference in performance on the phonological loops between those good and poor at mental math
wasn’t a difference
Dark & Benbow (1991) found that those good at mental math were more efficient in putting numbers on the ____ ____
visuospatial sketchpad
Ashcraft found that, while doing mental arithmetic, people keep track of both numbers and number position on the _____ _____ , esp, for problems requiring carries
visuospatial sketchpad
But Heathcote (1994) found that people keep partial results on the ____ ____ while doing math
phonological loop
Suggest that the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad work in ____ with each other
parallel
The capacity of the phonological loop is overwhelmed by most problems, requiring reliance on the ____ ____ ____
visuo-spatial sketchpad
Fuerst & Hitch (2000) found that making people repeat a syllable over and over, clogging the phonological loop, interfered with ___ ___ . But interference diminished if problem information was made continuously available, suggesting the loop is also used for initial problem representation.
problem solution.
Concurrent phonological tasks and concurrent visual tasks both interfere with mental math, suggesting both the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad ___ ____ in solving such problems
work together
Logie et al (1994) found that the greatest interference came from loading the ____ ___
central executive.
The ____ ____ apparently keeps track of when to carry and retrieves number facts. (the ___ ___ is keeping track of when to carry, which numbers to combine, and if you load it down you cannot keep track of that either)
central executive
Dahaene, el al. argue that during ___ ___ , numbers are represented
- In a visual arabic form in the visuospatial scratchpad
- In a verbal, phonological code.
- In an analog spatial representation that expresses magnitude and contributes approximate solutions
mental math
___ ___ appears to impair calculation by impairing efficiency of the central executive in executing procedures such as carrying.
This is due to intrusive thought and distracting info competing for limited executive resources
Math anxiety
____ ____ ____ : in using ATMs, such as failure to remove one’s card, appear to occur when working memory heavily loaded
-Led to redesigns where card is returned before cash is dispensed
Post completion error
Phone menus adopted ____ ____ ____, where no more than 3 options are presented at a time and we go deeper into the menu for more options instead to ease working memory stress. (general rule is you have no more than 3 options at a time, then you will have to go through different menus . Ex: there are 9 options, you will go through 3 different phrases. Disadvantage: it hangs up on you and now you have to call and go through all the menus.
“deep menu hierarchies”
___ _____ used have more trouble with concurrent tasks such as shunting between multiple windows
Elderly computer
Elderly users do better when tasks are made ______ , thus reducing pressure on working memory (ex: at a restaurant, elderly can only do one thing at a time, burgers first, then nachos, then tacos. While young people can do it all at a time)
serial (one at a time)
Meyer & Kieras created EPIC (Executive Process/Interactive Control) to ___ ______ ____
imitate human-machine interaction
___ has a visuospatial and auditory working memory store, along with task-specific control processes (rather than the human central executive). (In SH the maintenance and facility people tried out a new water fountain, it turned on with a sensor (people on wheelchair) the sensor was slow. It took it about a second to run and this second was crucial.)
EPIC
___ are retrieved from long-term memory to be applied to each task
“Productions”
- Actions then are executed while load on the memories is assessed
- Models human performance in testing software designs, especially ___ ___
Motor responses
Visuo-spatial working memory tasks impair performance on perceptuomotor tasks of games but not ___ ___
verbal components.
Verbal working memory tasks impair verbal elements of games but not _____ ___
perceptuo-motor performance.
____ ___ is used at each step to enable a comparison between the goal of the operation and the actual effect of it.
Working memory
Referent input (feedback) of the current state is fed into ___ ___ and signals the extent of tasks completion so working memory essential to correctional adjustments of actions (keeping track of where we are, and where the goal is it is hard on the central executive)
working memory
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables so meaning wouldn’t confound his results
Bartlett noted ____ was central to most memory, thus eliminating its effects was artificial.
meaning
-Laboratory tests may involve experiences not particularly meaningful to our lives.
Lab studies focus on ____ rather than ____ aspects of memory
quantitive; qualitative
People can remember names of __ of high school classmates even 50 years after leaving class
70%
Much autobiographical memory reaches ____ status
“permastore”
Researchers who kept a diary were able to recall up to ___ of memories over a 6 year period, with those that had been previously tested being recalled the best.
half
- People in their 70’s recall memories in ____ ____ and ___ ___ better than those of their 40’s and 50’s.
- Early years may have more “firsts” & more meaningful events recalled more often.
late childhood ; early adulthood
Memories related to odor park at - years of age
6-10
When reviewing memories, people regret most things they ___ ___ than those __ __, but in reviewing recent memories, they regret the things they ___ ___ than those they __ ___
- didn’t do ; they did
- did more ; they didn’t do
- Most remember nothing at all from their first __ - __ years.
- Psychoanalysts argue this is a repression of anxiety, but this would not explain failure to remember happy memories.
2-3 years
Infants and toddlers probably lack the ___ to organize and store memories, and what ___ they have probably don’t match those used later.
schemas
The ___ ___ may be too immature to create autobiographical memories
prefrontal cortex
-_____ memory may require a sense of self to be learned first.
Autobiographical
Some ___ may remember more early memories.
cultures
_____ ____ : We tend to remember many specific details of the surroundings when we experience shocking events.
-Brown and Kulik argue for a special memory system that records everything in shocking circumstances.
Flashbulb memories
Others have argued that such memories are strong because of frequent ___
retrieval.
___ may involve flashbulb memory for the traumatic event
PTSD
Frequent retrieval of the disturbing event keeps it strong and vivid in sufferers, and their ____ ___ don’t just like normal people do.
limbic systems
- ____ _____ : Recent DNA testing has voided convictions of hundreds convicted by eyewitness testimony.
- Prior knowledge and expectations strongly affect eyewitness testimony, as Bartlett noted.
eyewitness memories
_____ ___ contamination and interference increase with the passage of time, probably because memories are weaker with time and more easily interfered with.
Eyewitness memory
When memories are ___ but a section is left out during that ___, that section weakens in later ___ and may be omitted
recalled ; recall ; recall
causes of contamination : ___ memories are easily implanted in people by suggesting they should remember them
False
- Accurate memories may be replaced by ____ ___
- ___ induced forgetting may block ___ of the correct memory once the incorrect one is retrieved several times.
inaccurate memories ; Retrieval
- TV shows, movies often depict officers cleverly tricking people into confessions
- In reality, almost ___ people confess even when cornered, and ____ ___ often confess.
no guilty ; innocent people
False confession: People being questioned will glean details from the questioning
Then they imagine themselves doing the ___.
crime.
- Through source ____, then they lose track of how they knew that information, assume it came from personal experience
- Police have little incentive to question and confession
misattribution
- Children are more susceptible to leading questions and planted information, and their memories _____ more quickly.
- Even experts can’t distinguish true and false memories of children.
deteriorate
- The ____ make more memory mistakes than young adults
- The ____ are more likely to lose track of sources of information.
elderly
___ narrows the attentional spotlight, so we focus moe intently on fewer stimuli.
Stress
- ___ increases our memory of that focus item, reduces it for everything else.
- ____ often attract most attention to them.
stress ; weapons
- ___ increases our memory of that focus item, reduces it for everything else.
- ____ often attract most attention to them.
stress ; weapons
- Juries and judges are strongly impressed by confidence of witnesses, trust them more
- Confidence is/is not (pick one) related to accuracy of a memory
IS NOT
Confidence mostly determined by how many times you’ve ___ a memory
recalled
- Your memories and memories of others are strongly affected by _____ ___
- You can’t trust eyewitnesses much at all without corroboration.
subsequent information.
Eye witness recommendations:
- Statements should be taken ___ after the event
- Interviewers must ask ___ ___ and not intrude information.
ASAP ; neutral questions
___ strength is very different from ___ strength, so strong memories may not necessarily be retrieved, and weak ones sometimes can be retrieved easily.
May lead us to overestimate our memory ability based on storage strength
Storage ; retrieval
______ : Making a sentence of the first letter of each word
Acrostics
____ : spelling a word from the first letter of each word
Acronyms
_____ ____ ___ ___: the world’s oldest known mnemonic, attributed to Greek poet Simonides, who remembered the locations of everyone in a collapsed building.
The method of loci
Rhymes or alliteration: “Thirty days has September, April, June, and November“
rhymes
Alliteration or rhyme: “red, right, returning” to remember the marker lighting on ships and planes.
alliteration
The ____ ____ : Associated each item in an image with the remembered thyme, “one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, etc.”
The peg-word system
The keyword system: For language learning– you make the ____ ____ into an image that reminds you of an English word “stand on a chair, you can see a loose light.”
foreign word
- Techniques for remembering material that is essentially meaningless.
- Create ____ that allows such material to be imagined, elaborated, or organized
meaning
-Chase and Ericsson expanded the number span of student SF, who developed a memory span of 80 digits by linking groups to ___ ___
race times.
Chase & Ericsson suggested skillful memory involved:
1.
2.
3.
- Meaningful encoding
- Structured retrieval
- Practice
Expert Mnemonists:
- Some also have natural gifts for ___ ___, such as Lauria’s “S”
- Modern day cases also exist, including the 6 reported on 60 minutes in 2011.
eidetic imagery
- Probability of retrieval ___ when we are in the same context and setting as the original learning
- We perform better if tested in the ___ ___ ___
- increases
- original learning setting
- ___ ___ might cause more interference, spaced practice allowing us to separate material more clearly.
- Fatigue factors may set in during ____ ___
Massed practice
___ ___ linking material to the material already known
Elaborative rehearsal:
___ ___ : merely repeating material to keep the trace alive in working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
- Craik and Lockhart argued for ___ ___ ___
- The more deeply material is processed, the more likely it will be remembered
“levels of processing:
Factors in performance: For ____ ___ , the interval between retrieval should be long enough to make subsequent retrieval difficult but not impossible
optimal learning
-Landauer and Bjork found that ___ ___ increases memory better if time interval is steadily increased subsequent sessions
retrieval space
- ___ ___ : The main reason concrete words remembered better than abstract words
- Images allow dual encoding of concrete words
Visual Imagery
Retrieval-Induced Forgetting:
-Could be applied to phobias by having the person imagine non-fear responses to the object over and over, thus inhibiting the ___ ___
fear response.
___ ___ also could be treated by having the person practice calm responses to the triggered stimuli
Panic attacks
When a group of items is learned than a subset is practiced intensely at the last minute, recall of the ___ ____ is inhibited.
Effects disappear after about 24 hours, suggesting questioning should be spaced out for best results.
- Thus, last minute cramming before exams may be counterproductive
unpracticed material
Recalling specific items from a category repeatedly led to ___ memory for other items from that category that has been recalled less
-Appears to be active suppression over the short run aiding survival value
lower
____ questioning may retrieve some facts but not others, repressing them and biasing the content witness remember
Eyewitness
Exam Preparation: You might ask yourself likely ___ , create retrieval cues in advance for them
You might associate material with position in the ___ ___
questions ; exam room
Removing Retrieval Blocks:
- Relaxation and diversionary activities may help
- ___ may help, where you write on paper everything you can remember about the topic, no matter how vague.
Scribbling
Organization:
-Performance ____ when people group items
-Performance goes ___ as number of groups does, but peaks at about 7 categories.
increases ; higher
During _____ ____, we just keep re-activating the same links we did before because they’re still fresh, whereas in spaced practice we activate different links, creating more elaborated traces.
massed practice
If ___ is patchy, you can sometimes find retrieval cues by asking yourself question about the topic.
___ ___ may occur when you keep pulling up the wrong link
recall ; Retrieval blocks
Frequent retrieval of one particular trace ____ its access to the retrieval routes access to rival traces.
One consequence is that retrieving the ___ ___ repeatedly works against learning the right one.
Ex: Children adding by counting on fingers learn faster than those prevented from doing so.
increases ; wrong answer
____________________
- Context Restatement- The witness is asked to describe the scene and surroundings, in hope this will cue more memory from context (what they wore, what they were doing, what the weather was, what the surroundings were).
- Report Everything- anything might be a cue to an important memory
- Recall from a changed perspective- a different view may cue different memories
- Recall in reverse order
Many police officers have adopted the first two parts, but not the last two, because they feel it doesn’t add much and takes too much time
Giselman’s Cognitive Interview
_________ : significantly increases amount of detail recalled. It also increases false material recalled slightly but significantly.
The Cognitive Interview
Children under 6 find the ______ confusing.
It doesn’t work as well when long retention intervals are involved (more than a few days)
The Cognitive Interview
____________
“A sample will only resemble, or be representative of a, population if the former is sufficiently large.”
The bigger the sample, the closer our estimated frequency resembles the actual frequency
The Law of Large Numbers
______- if we sample more and more things we are more likely to get an average.
Belief that a particular proportion will be evident after taking sufficiently large sample
The smaller the number in the sample relative to the total group, the more samples vary from the ______
The Law of Average
Probabilities generally expressed in ____
percentages
Events are ______ of each occurrence has no influence on the probability of the next one.
The probability of independent events occurring together (conjunction) is the product of the probability of each event. (fancy way of saying must multiply them together).
The probability of one independent event occurring or the other one (disjunction) is the sum of each probability.
independent
_________ The belief that a small sample can represent a large group (if you had a defective Toyota, that means they can be trusted)
The Representativeness Heuristic
_________ The belief that past independent events influence current ones (I’ve lost continuously, so I’m due to wim)
Ex: I’m loosing too many times. I’m bound to win. (it’s not logical thinking)
The Gambler’s Fallacy
_________ The belief that the odds of two things happening together can be greater than the odds of the individual events (Kahneman’s study where people think the odds a person is a WOW player and a fan of LOTR is greater than they’re merely one of them)
The Conjunction Fallacy
______ are poor at stimulating random events
- You flip a coin 6 times– are you more likely to get HTHTHT or HTTHHT?
- Unlikely events are far more common than people realize, because they equate “unlikely” with “impossible”
A: Humans,
Randomness
_______: we tend to judge how likely an event is by whether we can readily retrieve examples of it
The availability Heuristic
_______ : We tend to believe that extreme values predict more extreme values, so that tall parents will have even taller children
In fact, the odds are that we won’t get together all the things that made the parents tall in their offspring, so they’ll tend to be shorter than the parents
Regression to the Mean
______ People may play because the cost is close enough to zero that expected utility is seen as positive, or because they get excitement and fun worth the investment.
Winning the Lottery
____ increases lottery participation just as it increases exercise and buying
Music
The_________ may play a role– we can retrieve example of winners readily
availability heuristic
____ fail to appreciate randomness- numbers spaced 5 part just as likely to win as 6 scattered numbers
Players
Trying to pick numbers based on past winners is an example of the ________
gambler’s fallacy
____ prefer choosing personal, non-random numbers to random picks
People
____ often have an illusion of control, believe skill is involved in selecting numbers
People
Near misses may create enjoyable excitement similar to that of winning, thus _____ play.
reinforcing
the ________ : people believe they have to continue playing because they’ve already sunk so much into it already. ( I can’t quit now, I have already invested so much money in this, it would make what I spent earlier worthless)
sunk cost bias
The odds two people with share a birthday in a group of 23 people is 50% (70% for 30 people)
Even ___ ___ will coincide by chance given enough people to experience them
rare events
People believe in precognition or telepathy in dreams because of _____ ___
Yet given multiple dreams a night by millions of people, odds are nearly 100% that such coincidences will happen.
____ ____ also plays a role– we forget the parts that don’t fit.
past experience
Selective forgetting
____ ____ may increase belief– thinking we control things appears to give rise to the conclusion that we actually did control the outcome.
Perceived control
There are three possible outcomes of ____ _____– the patient gets worse, stays the same, or gets better.
⅔ of these outcomes can be seen as positive support for the treatment
Even if the treatment fails, the observers will probably argue that it was simply too late, so no evidence of the treatment failing is ever collected.
Quack treatment
______ : its the something. no matter how you phrase it the outcome is still the same.
Framing
People asked questions and asked their confidence they were right on each one. Others were given the questions and asked the odds they’d have given the right answer.
______ led to greater confidence the person would have been right.
Hindsight
