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Bio 1010 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

The floral structures are attached in a circle of the flower where are the sepals and petals

A

The outer layer of the circle contains sepals which are usually green and enclose the flower before it opens

The next layer after the sepals are removed there are the petals these are very noticeable and attract pollinators and these petals are the key to the success of angiosperms

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2
Q

What is revealed when the flower petals are removed

A

The stamen filiments

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3
Q

What is at the top of each stamen filament

A

The anther

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4
Q

Describe the anther

A

A sac containing the male sporangia this will eventually release pollen

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5
Q

Where is the carpel located and what does it do

A

The structure located at the centre of the flower
This is the female reproductive structure including the ovary
A unique adaptation which enclosed the ovules
Each ovule contains a sporangium that will produce a female gametophyte and eventually become a seed
The ovary will mature into a fruit which aids in seed dispersal

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6
Q

Angiosperms are a group of plants that are

A

Sporophyte dominant

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7
Q

The gametophyte generation of angiosperms is produced where

A

Its body

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8
Q

Where does meiosis occur in angiosperms

A

Within the anther of the flower
This produces haploid spores which undergo mitosis
These will form the male gametophyte (pollen grains)

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9
Q

Meiosis in the ovule produces what

A

A haploid spore that undergoes mitosis
This forms the few cells of the female gametophyte
One of these cells is destined to become an egg

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10
Q

Pollination of angiosperms occurs when

A

A pollen grain lands on the stigma
The pollen grain is carried by either wind or an animal
A tube grows from the pollen grain to the ovule and a sperm fertilizes the egg (same as in gymnosperms)
This forms a zygote

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11
Q

In angiosperms a seed develops from each ovule and each seed consists of

A

An embryo surrounded by a seed coat and a food supply

The embryo is a new sporophyte

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12
Q

As the seed develops in angiosperms the ovaries wall thickens and forms what

A

The fruit that encloses the seeds

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13
Q

When conditions are favourable for the angiosperms the seed germinates and …

A

The embryo grows it uses the food supply from the seed until it can begin photosynthesis
Eventually it develops into a mature sporophyte completing the life cycle

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14
Q

What is a key adaptation of angiosperms

A

The flowers attract animals which carry pollen more reliably then wind
They are also able to produce seeds very rapidly - fertilization occurs just 12 hours after pollination

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15
Q

Describe fruits

A

The ripened ovary of the flower

Aids in seed dispersal

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16
Q

Explain the stages of fruits

A

During development the fruits remain green and thus camouflaged
When ripe fruit becomes bright this attracts animals
When the fruit is eaten the seeds will be deposited by the animal

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17
Q

Not all flowers have colourful accessories and sweet scents what is an example of this

A

Red maple
Has many anthers but no petals and relies on wind for pollination
To work massive amounts of pollen must be produced to endure that some make it to another plant and fertilization takes place

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18
Q

The columbine has an elaborate flower vibrantly coloured what are the advantages and disadvantages

A

This is associated with a high energy cost
This investment pays off when a pollinator carries the plants pollen to another flower
Because the pollinator is attracted to the flower

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19
Q

What supports the fact that about 90% of angiosperms use animals for pollination

A

Animals visit the flowers in search of a meal
Flowers provide meal in form of nectar which is a high energy fluid
The colourful petals and strong fragrance mark the plant as a good source

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20
Q

Two major groups of angiosperms are what

A

Monocots and

Eudicots

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21
Q

How are angiosperms classified into monocots and eudicots

A

According to the first leaves that appear on the plant embryo
These embryonic leaves are called seed leaves or cotyledons

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22
Q

How many cotyledon’s do monocots have and how many do eudicots have

A

Monocots - 1 cotyledon

Eudicots - 2 cotyledon

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23
Q

Give examples of monocots

A

Large group of related plants including lilies and orchids

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24
Q

What are the characteristics of monocots

A

Leaves with parallel veins
Stems contain vascular tissues arranged in scattered bundles
Flowers contain petals and other parts in multiples of three
Roots from a shallow, fibrous system spreading out below the soil surface ; this arrangement permits a huge surface area which reduces erosion

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25
Q

Give examples of eudicots

A

Included most shrubs and tress crops fruits and vegetables

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26
Q

Most angiosperms are eudicots or monocots

A

Eudicots

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27
Q

What are the characteristics of eudicots

A 
Multi-branched network of veins 
Vascular bundles arranged in a ring
Petals and other parts are found in arrangements of four or five
Root is large and vertical -> taproot
Goes deep into the soil
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28
Q

The plant body contains three basic organs

A

1) roots
2) stems
3) leaves
Each are composed of different tissues
Organ structure correlates nicely with function

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29
Q

What are the two systems of a plant

A

Root system

Shoot system

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30
Q

Describe the root system

A

Anchors the plant in the soil
Absorbs and transports minerals and water
Stores food
Near the root tips is an abundance of root hairs
- increases surface area for absorption of water and minerals

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31
Q

Describe the shoot system

A

Made of stems and leaves

Also reproductive structures such as flowers

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32
Q

What are the four parts of the shoot system

A

Stems
Nodes
Internodes
Leaves

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33
Q

Describe the stems

A

Above ground

Supports leaves and flowers

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34
Q

Describe the nodes

A

Point at which leaves are attached

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35
Q

Describe the internodes

A

Portions of the stem between the nodes

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36
Q

Describe the leaves

A

Main photosynthetic organs

Composed of a flattened blade and a stalk called a petiole which joins the leaf to the node of the stem

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37
Q

What are the two types of buds

A

Terminal buds

Axillary buds

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38
Q

Describe terminal buds

A

At the apex tip of the growing stem

Has developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes

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39
Q

Describe axillary buds

A

These are within the angle between the leaf and the stem

Usually dormant

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40
Q

Describe apical dominance

A

Hormones produced by the terminal buds inhibit their growth

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41
Q

Axillary buds allow concentrating resources toward growing taller and increases the plants what

A

The plants exposure to sunlight and is important when vegetation is dense

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42
Q

Under some conditions the axillary buds begin to grow and what occurs

A

The growth removes the terminal bud and often stimulates the growth of the axillary bud

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43
Q

What are the three modified stems

A

Horizontal stem (runner)
Rhizomes
Bulbs

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44
Q

Describe horizontal stem

A

Aka runner
Grows along the ground surface
Allows the plant to reproduce asexually

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45
Q

Describe rhizomes

A

Horizontal stems that grow either right below or along the surface of the soil
They store food and may also spread and form new plants
Potato plants have rhizomes which end in enlarged structures called tubers which are specialized for storage (the potato)

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46
Q

Describe bulbs

A

Underground shoots which contain swollen leaves for food storage

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47
Q

What are the two types of modified leaves

A

Tendrils

Spines

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48
Q

Describe tendrils

A

The tips are coiled around a stem

This helps the plant to climb such As in a grapevine

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49
Q

Describe spines

A

Of a cactus are a modified leaf that protects against being eaten by animals

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50
Q

Define a tissue

A

Group of cells with a common structure function or both

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51
Q

Define a tissue system

A

Composed of one or more functional units within a plant

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52
Q

The plant root stem and lead are all made of three tissue systems

A

1) dermal tissue
2) vascular tissue
3) ground tissue

The three tissue systems have different arrangements in different organs

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53
Q

What are the four types of eukaryotes

A

Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals

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53
Q

Explain protists

A 
Eukaryotes 
Unicellular (mostly)
Diverse group and live in diverse habitats 
Some are autotrophic = algae
Some Heterotrophic = protozoans
Some are both = mixotrophs
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54
Q

Explain protists diverse habitat

A

Most are aquatic
Can be found almost anywhere with water ie) damp soil and ponds
Some protists inhabit host organisms

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55
Q

Define endosymbiosis

Give an example

A

Refers to one species called an endosymbiont living within another species
Ie) termite endosymbiont leaves in the gut of a termite and digests the tough cellulose in the wood diet of the termite
They live in harmony

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56
Q

Define symbiosis

A

Refers to a close relationship between organisms of two or more species

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57
Q

What is the simplest group of eukaryotes

A

Protists

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58
Q

What are the 5 subgroups of protists

A

1) Chromalveolata
2) Rhizaria
3) Excavata
4) Unikonta
5) Archaeplastida

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59
Q

How did eukaryotes originate

A

The theory is endosymbiosis

When small prokaryotes established residence in larger prokaryotes

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60
Q

What evidence supports the endosymbiosis theory of eukaryote origin

A

There are similarities between prokaryotes and present day mitochondria and chloroplasts

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61
Q

Who is said to have evolved first
Heterotrophic eukaryotes
Or
Autotrophic eukaryotes

A

Heterotrophic

Have no chloroplast and can not preform photosynthesis

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62
Q

How where autotrophic eukaryotes said to have originated

A

When an individual engulfed an autotrophic Cyanobacterium (these are photosynthetic bacteria)
Eventually the Cyanobacterium turned into a chloroplast
This later created green and red algae

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63
Q

What happened to the red and free algae during the evolution of protists and eukaryotes

A

The green and red algae became endosymbiont when engulfed by heterotrophic eukaryotes

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64
Q

Define secondary endosymbiosis

A

The process when an autotrophic eukaryote protist became endosymbiotic in a heterotrophic eukaryotic protist

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65
Q

What are the five types of chromalveolates

A

1) diatoms
2) dinoflagellates
3) brown algae
4) water molds
5) ciliates

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66
Q

What are the two types of Rhizarians

A

1) foraminiferans

2) radiolarians

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67
Q

What are the two types of unikonts

A

1) plasmodial slime molds

2) cellular slime molds

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68
Q

What are the two types of archaeplastids

A

1) red algae

2) green algae

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69
Q

Describe diatoms

A 
Unicellular 
Glassy cell wall with silica and has two halves of the cell wall that fit together like a box 
Autotrophic 
Found in marine and freshwater 
Produce important food for aquatic life
They form their food in sugar droplets
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70
Q

What are the two advantages of diatoms sugar and oil droplets

A

Rich source of energy

Oil makes the diatoms buoyant and keeps them floating near the surface of the water where sunlight is plentiful

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71
Q

Fossilized diatoms form what

A

Sediment

Diatomaceous earth

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72
Q

Describe dinoflagellates

A

Found on marine and freshwater plankton

Some are hetero/auto/mixotrophic

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73
Q

What happens when dinoflagellates bloom

A

They can cause warm coastal waters to turn pinkish orange which is called the red tide
And produce toxins which have killed large quantities of fish

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74
Q

Describe brown algae

A 
Large and complex 
Autotrophic 
ALL Are multicellular 
Most are marine
What we commonly call seaweed
(Kelp)
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75
Q

What is brown algae brown

A

Due to their pigments in their chloroplasts

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76
Q

Describe water molds

A 
Heterotrophic 
Unicellular 
Fungus like
Decompose dead plants and animals in freshwater habitats
Some grow on the skin and gills of fish
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77
Q

Describe ciliates

A

Large and diverse group
Use cilia for movement and feeding
Unicellular
Heterotrophic and mixotrophs

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78
Q

What is an example of ciliates

A

Paramecium

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79
Q

What do chromalveolates also include

What do these cause and how are they transmitted

A

Plasmodium

Cause malaria and transmitted by mosquitoes

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80
Q

What are Rhizarians referred to and why

A

Amoebas

Because they move and feed using pseudopodia

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81
Q

Why are Rhizarians pseudopodia different then other amoebas

A

Their pseudopodia is thread like rather then the typical lobe like

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82
Q

Describe foraminiferans

A

Found in ocean and freshwater

Have tests

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83
Q

Define tests

A

Tests are porous shells composed of organic material hardened by calcium carbonate
Pseudopodia extend through the small holes in the test

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84
Q

What do fossilized tests form

A

Sedimentary rock

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85
Q

Describe radiolarians

A

Produce an internal skeleton made of silica
The cell is also surrounded by a test of organic material
Many species are marine
When they die they settle at the bottom of the ocean and become sediments

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86
Q

Describe excavata

A

Autotrophic heterotrophic mixotrophs
Likely the most ancient type of eukaryote
Has a modified mitochondria with no electron chain
Are anaerobic (use glycolysis for ATP)

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87
Q

Who are likely the most ancient eukaryotes

A

Excavata

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88
Q

What are some examples of excavatas

A 
Giardia intestinalis 
-waterborne parasite causes diarrhea 
Trichomonas vaginalis (via sex)
Trypanosoma spp (via bugs)
Euglena spp (found in pond water)
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89
Q

Define a parasite

A

Derive nutrition from their host, and the host is harmed during the process

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90
Q

Describe unikonts

A 
Use pseudopodia to move and feed 
Includes:
-free living amoebas
-some parasitic amoebas
-2 types of slime molds
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91
Q

Describe plasmodial slime molds

A

Commonly found where these is moist decaying organic matter
Brightly pigmented
Unicellular
DIFFERENT then the plasmodium that causes malaria
Uses pseudopodia
Moves cytoplasm as one in a pulsing flow to move nutrients and oxygen

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92
Q

What happens when food is limited for the plasmodium

A

The plasmodium stops growing and differentiates into reproductive structures that produce spores
When conditions are favourable the spores release haploid cells that fuse to form a zygote allowing the life cycle to continue

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93
Q

Describe cellular slime molds

A

Common on rotting logs and decaying organic matter

Usually they exist as solo amoeboid cells

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94
Q

What happens to cellular slime molds when nutrients are scarce

A

They swarm together forming a slug like clump of cells that travels around for a short time
Some of these cells will then dry up and form a stalk

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95
Q

What does the stalk do for cellular slime molds

A

Supports an asexual reproductive structure

In this structure cells develop into spores

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96
Q

Describe archaeplastids

A

Mainly autotrophic

Red green algae and land plants

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97
Q

Describe red algae

A

Live in warm coastal waters of the tropics
Red because of an extra pigment that masks the green
Most are multicellular
Most are soft bodied but some have hard deposits on their cell wall

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98
Q

Where do you find hard bodied red algae

A

On coral reefs

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99
Q

Describe green algae

A

Green coloured
Unicellular
Colonial and multicellular members
Generally have complex life cycles

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100
Q

What is an example of a green algae with a complex life cycle

A

Multicellular Ulva

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101
Q

Complex life cycle of multicellular green algae is characterized by what

A

By an alternation of generations

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102
Q

How is green algaes life cycle an alternation of generations

A

Multicellular diploid form (2n) alternates with a multicellular haploid (n) form
This alternation of generations occurs in many multicellular algae as well as plants

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103
Q

Define gametophytes

A

Multicellular haploid form

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Perfectly
104
Q

Define sporophytes

A

Multicellular diploid form

105
Q

Explain the evolution of multicellularity

A

1) an ancestral colony of flagellated protists may have formed (when a cell divided and offspring remained attached)
2) cells of the colony may have become slightly specialized and interdependent (more efficient)
3) additional specialization may have led to differentiation in between sex cells and non reproductive cells

106
Q

Why was early life on land perfect for plants

A

There was an abundance of sunlight and carbon dioxide

There were very few pathogens and plant eating animals

107
Q

What differentiates multicellular algae from multicellular plants

A

Plants under went certain key adaptations that needed to take place in order for them to be able to live on dry land

108
Q

What are some of the key differences between algae and plants

A

Algae
- anchored but no ridged tissues supported by water contains minerals and CO2 directly from the water the entire organism has access to light, flagellated sperm swim to the egg and offspring are also dispersed by water
Plants
- surrounded by air and has mechanism to keep water in cells, gets nutrients from soil and air, has to support itself, has to reproduce without the use of water

109
Q

What are the four plant adaptations for life on land

A

1) maintaining moisture
2) obtaining resources from very different environments
3) supporting the plant body
4) reproduction and dispersal

110
Q

Explain the plants adaptation to maintain moisture

A

The portions of land plants that are above the ground are covered with a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss
CO2 and o2 cannot diffuse across the cuticle so the pores on the leaves function in gas exchange

111
Q

What are the pores called on the leaves of plants and how are they regulated

A

Stomata
Surrounding cells regulate the opening and closing of the pores
Usually stomata is open during the day allowing gas exchange and closed during the night to prevent water loss

112
Q

Explain the plants adaptations to obtaining resources from different environments

A

Plants must obtain resources from both the soil and the air
Water and nutrients are found in the soil
Light and CO2 is found in the air
Roots stems and leaves help to fulfill these requirements

113
Q

Describe the roots and how they help in obtaining resources from different environments

A

Provide anchorage

Absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil

114
Q

Describe the stems and leaves and how they help to obtain resources from different environments

A

The leaves capture CO2 which enables photosynthesis
Apical meristems are growth producing regions that are found near the tips of both roots and stems
Elongation and branching act to maximize exposure to resources found within the soil and air

115
Q

How do vascular and avascular tissues help obtain resources from different environments

A

The xylem functions to move water and minerals up from the roots
The phloem functions to move sugars up and down the plant
Avascular
-few plants are avascular and are restricted with height because they have limited means to distribute water and minerals from the soil and air

116
Q

Define apical meristems

A

Growth producing regions that are found near the tips of both roots and stems

117
Q

What are the two types of tissues in plants

A

Vascular

Avascular

118
Q

What are the two types of vascular tissues

A

1) xylem - move water up from roots and are composed of dead and living cells
2) phloem - move sugars up and down the plant and composed of ONLY living cells

119
Q

Explain the plants adaptations of supporting the body

A

They must be able to hold themselves up against gravity

Cell walls of some plants are thickened and reinforced by a chemical called LIGNIN

120
Q

What is the chemical called that reinforces and thickens the cell wall what happens when there is an absence of this chemical

A

Lignin

Causes a height limitation

121
Q

Explain a plants adaptations of reproduction and dispersal

A

Plants must be able to keep their gametes developing embryos from drying out in the air

122
Q

Where do mosses and ferns produce gametes

A

Within the female and male gametangia

123
Q

Define the gametangia

A

Structures made of a protective jacket of cells surrounding the gamete producing cells

124
Q

Why can mosses and ferns only reproduce in moist environments

A

Because male gametes are released and swim to the female gametangium where the egg remains and this requires water!

125
Q

What do pines and flowering plants have for reproduction

A

Pollen grains

126
Q

Describe pollen grains

A

Structures that contain the sperm producing cells

These are brought close to the egg by wind and animals this does not require moisture

127
Q

What occurs to the zygote in all plants

A

The zygote (fertilized egg) develops into an embryo while still attached to the parent plant

128
Q

Define the embryophyte

A

What the embryo is called when multicellular and dependent

Key difference between plants and algae

129
Q

What does the haploid generation produce during the alternating generation

A

Eggs and sperm

130
Q

What does the diploid generation produce during the alternating generation

A

Produces spores within a structure called a sporangium

131
Q

What can spores develop into

A

A new organism without fusion with another cell

132
Q

What types of plants uses spores for dispersal and what plants use seeds

A 
Mosses/ferns= spores
Pines/flowers= seeds
133
Q

Define seeds

A

Elaborate embryo containing structures that protect the embryo from elements that are dispersed by wind or animals

134
Q

Plants that do not use seeds to disperse their offspring are referred to as what
Give an example

A

Seedless plants

Ie) mosses and ferns

135
Q

Define bryophytes

A

Seedless avascular plants that were first to arise

136
Q

Describe bryophytes and give an example

A

Lack true roots and leaves
They resemble all other plants because they have apical meristems and embryos that develop while attached to the parent plant
They do not have lignin so don’t grow very tall
Found in spongey mats or growing in dense mats
Ie) mosses

137
Q

Describe vascular plants

A

Have lignin in cell walls

Provide strong support allowing for them to stand straight and grow tall

138
Q

What are the two primary groups of vascular plants

A

Seedless vascular plants

Seeded vascular plants

139
Q

Describe seedless vascular plants

A

Includes ferns
These have well devolved roots and stems common in forests but are more diverse in the tropics some can grow several meters tall
Do not require moisture for reproduction
They disperse their offspring as spores carried through the air

140
Q

Describe seeded vascular plants

A

Accounts for more then 90% of the species

Seeds and pollen improved the plants ability to live on land

141
Q

Define seeds

A

Contain an embryo and a food supply contained within a protective coating
Package of survival
Facilitated the dispersal of plant embryos over wide distances

142
Q

Define pollen

A

Brings sperm producing cells into close contact with egg-producing parts
Water is not necessary for fertilization
Pollen is able to travel large distances

143
Q

What are the two main groups of seeded plants

A

1) gymnosperms (earliest seed plants)

2) angiosperms

144
Q

Define gymnosperms

A

The earliest lineage of seeded plants
Gymno = naked
Seeds are not produced in chambers

145
Q

What is the largest group of gymnosperms

A

Conifers

Cone bearing trees ie pine

146
Q

Define angiosperms

A

The most recent episode in plant evolution
These are flowering plants
Angio= container
Refers to the fact the seed is produced within a specialized chamber
Flowers are complex reproductive structures that develop seeds within protective chambers

147
Q

Summarize the evolution of plant adaptations

A

1) dependent embryos are present in all plants
2) lignified vascular tissues mark a lineage that gave rise to most vascular plants
3) seeds are found on all gymnosperms and angiosperms and dominate the plant kingdom today
4) flowers are the makers of the angiosperm lineage

148
Q

What are the stages of the plant life cycle

A

1) haploid gametophyte plants produce gametes (sperm and egg) by mitosis
2) fertilization produces a diploid zygote
3) the zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular diploid sporophyte plants
4) the sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis
5) spore then develops by mitosis into a multicellular haploid gametophyte

149
Q

Mosses are___. The cushiony green growth of the moss is the _____

A

Gametophyte dominant

Gametophyte

150
Q

5 stages of moss life cycle

A

1) gametes develop in male and female gametangia
2) after fertilization the zygote remains in the gametangium
3) in the gametangium the zygote divides by mitosis
4) meiosis occurs in the sporangia at the tips of the sporophyte stalks
5) spores undergo mitosis and develop into gametophyte plants

151
Q

Where is the gametangia usually located in mosses

A

On separate plants

152
Q

Flagellated sperm swims through a water film to reach the egg in the female _____

A

Gametangium

153
Q

In mosses after the zygote divides by mitosis what does it develop into

A

Sporophyte embryo and then mature sporophyte

The sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte

154
Q

Following meiosis in moss the haploid spores are released from the ____

A

Sporangium

155
Q

Describe ferns and it’s life cycle

A

Sporophyte dominate

1) gametophyte is very small (heart like shape and sperm needs moisture)
2) the zygote remains on the gametophyte
3) the zygote develops into an independent sporophyte
4) within the clusters of sporangia cells undergo meiosis producing haploid spores which are then released
5) spores develop into gametophytes by mitosis

156
Q

In gymnosperms what is the specialized structure within the sporophyte that all stages of reproduction occur

A

The cone

Each scale of the cone contains sporangia which produce spores by meiosis

157
Q

What are the two types of cones that pine trees have which produce spores

A

Pollen cones

Ovulate cone

158
Q

Describe the pollen cone

A

Produces male gametophytes
Smaller cones
Contain sporangia which produce many haploid spores by meiosis
Male pollen grains (gametophytes) develop from these spores
Mature pollen cones release millions of microscopic pollen grains in clouds and are carried by wind
They contain cells that will develop into sperm if they land on a cone containing a female gametophyte

159
Q

Describe the ovulate cone

A

Produces the female gametophyte
Larger cone
Each scale contains a pair of ovules
Each ovule contains a sporangium covered by a protective covering

160
Q

What is the protective covering around the sporangium in the ovule called

A

Integument

161
Q

When does pollination occur in gymnosperms

A

When a pollen grain lands on an ovulate scale and enter an ovule
Following pollination the scales grow together sealing the cone until the seeds are mature
Now meiosis occurs in a spore mother cell within the ovule

162
Q

Over the course of months how many haploid spores will survive and develop into the female gametophyte in gymnosperms

A

ONE
this gametophyte will produce eggs
A tiny tube grows out of the pollen grains and this tube digests its way through the ovule and eventually sperm is released near an egg

163
Q

How long after pollination in gymnosperms will fertilization usually occur

A

More then a year after pollination

164
Q

All eggs in an ovule are usually fertilized but ____

A

Only one of these zygotes will fully develop into a sporophyte embryo

165
Q

Under favourable conditions the seed will do what in gymnosperms

A

Will germinate and it’s embryo will develop into a pine seedling

166
Q

The ovule will mature into a seed in gymnosperms and do what

A

The seed contains the embryos food
The food supply is the remains of the female gametophyte
The seed coat is the ovules integument
Typically seeds are shed two years after pollination
The seeds disperse by wind

167
Q

Where is the site of pollination and fertilization on angiosperms

A

The flowers

They house separate male and female sporangia and gametophytes

168
Q

How do flowers differ from pine cones

A

Each structure of the flower is highly specialized for very different functions

169
Q

Describe the dermal tissue system

A

Forms an outer protective covering

First line of defence against physical damage and infectious organisms

170
Q

What does the dermal tissue system consist of

A

Epidermis - single layer of tightly packed cells

Cuticle - waxy outer covering atop the epidermis protects against water loss

171
Q

Describe vascular tissue

A

Composed of xylem and phloem tissues

Provides support and long distance transport

172
Q

Describe ground tissue

A

Not dermal or vascular
Accounts for the bulk of a young plant
Fills the space between the vascular tissue and the epidermis
This system function is support storage and photosynthesis

173
Q

ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is the

A

Pith

174
Q

Ground tissue external to the vascular tissue is the

A

Cortex

175
Q

Describe the vascular cylinder

Two types of cells

A

Vascular tissue system in the centre of the root
Xylem cells
Phloem cells

176
Q

Xylem cells of dicot are found where

A

Radiate from the centre like spokes of a wheel

Ring of xylem cells found in root of monocots

177
Q

Phloem cells of dicot are found where

A

Fill the wedges between the spokes

Ring of phloem cells found in root of monocots

178
Q

The region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis consists entirely of ___

A

Correct

179
Q

Define cortex cells

A

Store food and starch and take up minerals that have entered the root via the epidermis

180
Q

Define the epidermis

A

The inner layer of the cortex
A cylinder that is one cell layer thick
A selective barrier that determines which materials can pass between the rest of the cortex and the vascular tissue

181
Q

Eudicots and monocots have different stem arrangements explain:

A

Both have vascular tissues arranged in vascular bundles
Monocots - has vascular bundles scattered throughout the ground tissue
Eudicots - has vascular bundles arranged in a ring

182
Q

What do eudicot stems have unlike roots

Are monocots the same

A

Has both a cortex region and a pith region

No they are not divided into pith and cortex regions

183
Q

Describe the stomata

A

Interrupt the epidermis
Allow gas exchange
Each stoma is bordered by two guard cells that regulate the size of the stomata opening

184
Q

The ground tissue between the leaf is called what and is between what

A

Mesophyll
Between the Upper and lower epidermis
Consists predominantly of photosynthetic parenchymal cells
Where chloroplasts are located

185
Q

Eudicots and monocots have vascular tissue on the leaf made up of a network of ___

A

Veins

186
Q

Each vein has a vascular bundle composed of __ and __

What does this do

A

Xylem and phloem

Gives leaf it’s shape and helps carry out photosynthesis by circulating

187
Q

What are the three structures that distinguish plants from other eukaryotes

A

Chloroplasts
Central vacuole -contains fluid for shape
Cell wall

188
Q

Many plants have two cell walls what are they

A

Primary cell wall
(Laid down first)
Secondary cell wall
(Ridged laid down second and is between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall)

189
Q

Define the middle lamella

A

A sticky layer that holds the primary cell walls of adjacent cells together

190
Q

What are pits

A

Regions where the cell wall is relatively thin allowing the migration of water between adjacent cells

191
Q

Define plasmodesmata

A

Channels of communication and circulation between adjacent plant cells

192
Q

What are the five types of plant cells

A

1) parenchymal cells
2) collenchyma cells
3) sclerenchyma cells
4) water conducting cells
5) food conducting cells

193
Q

Define parenchymal cells

A

Most abundant cell type
Have only primary cell walls which are thin and flexible
Preform most metabolic plant function
-photosynthesis
-aerobic respiration
-food storage
-most can divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells

194
Q

Define collenchyma cells

A

Do not have secondary cell walls
Usually have thicken primary cell walls
Provide flexible support in parts of the plant that are still growing
Young stems and petioles often have collenchyma cells just below their surface
These cells remain alive and elongate as stems and leaves grow

195
Q

Define sclerenchyma cells

A

Have thick secondary cell walls
Strengthened with the lignin
Mature cells cannot elongate and thus are found in regions of the plant that have stopped growing
Most are dead at maturity
These cells form a rigid cell skeleton to support the plant

196
Q

There are two types of sclerenchyma cells what are they

A

Fibers - long and slender and often arranged in bundles

Sclereids - shorter then fibre cells have thick irregular and very hard secondary walls
Cells responsible for the hardness of nutshells

197
Q

Describe water conducting cells

A

Have rigid lignin containing secondary cell walls
Chains come from tubes by overlapping their end
Carries water from the roots to the stems and leaves as part of the xylem tissue
These tubes are hollow and the cells dead when they are mature and only their cell walls remain
Rigid thick walls allow these cells to function in support

198
Q

What are the two types of water conducting cells

A

Tracheids -long thin cells with tapered ends

Vessel elements - wider shorter and less tapered

199
Q

Describe food conducting cells

A

Sieve-tube members are arranged end to end like xylem forming tubes
Remain alive at maturity but loose most organelles (nucleus and ribosomes)
Allows more room for the transport materials
End walls have sieve plates containing pores that allow fluid to flow from cell to cell

200
Q

Describe companion cells in food conducting cells

A

Alongside each sieve tube cell (at least one) connected by plasmodesmata and function to supply the cell with proteins

201
Q

Define primary growth of plants

A

Lengthens roots and shoots

202
Q

Most plant species experience ____ meaning that they continue to grow for the duration of their life

A

Indeterminate growth

203
Q

Most animals experience ___ meaning that they cease growing after a certain length

A

Determinate growth

204
Q

Angiosperms are characterized according to life cycle duration what are the three types

A

1) annuals - complete lifecycle in one year or less (crops)
2) biennials - complete lifecycle in two years (beers/carrots)
3) perennials - live and reproduce for many years (trees shrubs ext)

205
Q

Do plants die from old age?

A

No they die from environmental factors

206
Q

Plant growth is made possible by tissues called____

A

Meristems

207
Q

Define meristems

A

Consist of cells that divide frequently generating more cells
Some of these new cells remain in the meristem and continue to divide while others differentiate being incorporated into the tissues of the growing plant

208
Q

Define apical meristems

A

Located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots
Cell division Helps produce new cells allowing the plant to grow in length called primary growth
Enables roots to push through the soil and shoots to increase exposure to light and CO2
Roots and shoots lengthen using different mechanisms

209
Q

Explain root growth

A

The tip of the root is covered by a root cap which protects the cells of the apical meristem which are actively dividing

210
Q

Growth in length occurs just behind the root tip with three areas of distinct cells which are..

A

1) the zone of cell division
2) the zone of elongation
3) the zone of maturation
(No sharpe boundaries between these three areas)

211
Q

Explain the zone of cell division

A

Contain the cells of the root apical meristem and cells that derive from it
New cells of the root are produced here including root cap cells

212
Q

Explain the zone of elongation

A

Root cells here elongate (as much as ten times their original length)
Pushes the root tip further into the soil
Cells lengthen and do not expand because of cellulose fibre arrangement
Cells take up water and the cellulose fibres separate expanding like an accordion

213
Q

Explain the zone of differentiation

A

All three plant tissues complete their development here
(Dermal ground and vascular tissues)
Cells in the vascular cylinder differentiate into primary xylem and primary phloem
Differentiation occurs because of differential gene expression

214
Q

Define secondary growth of plants

A

Woody plants continue to grow in the girth once primary growth is complete
Occurs because of activity in dividing lateral meristems that are arranged into cylinders called vascular cambium and cork cambium

215
Q

Define lateral meristems and how are they arranged

A

Where cells divide to cause secondary growth

Arranged into cylinders called vascular cambium and cork cambium

216
Q

Define vascular cambium

A

Cylinder of meristem cells one cell thick between the primary xylem and primary phloem

217
Q

Secondary growth adds layers of vascular tissue on either side of the ____

A

Vascular cambium

218
Q

The vascular cambium gives rise to two new tissues that are ..

A 
Secondary xylem 
(the interior of the vascular cambium)

Secondary phloem
(The exterior of the vascular cambium

219
Q

Secondary xylem composes _____

A

The wood of the tree cell walls are rich in lignin providing characteristic wood strength

220
Q

When secondary growth begins the epidermis sloughs off and is replaced by ____

A

Cork (the new outer layer)

221
Q

Describe cork

A

Mature cork cells are dead and have thick waxy cell walls that protect the under layers

222
Q

Cork is produced by what

A

The cork cambium which first forms from parenchymal cells within the cortex

223
Q

Everything outside the vascular cambium is called ___

A

Bark
Main components are secondary phloem cork cambium an cork
Youngest secondary phloem functions in sugar transport and older secondary phloem dies

224
Q

When no cortex remains it forms from ____

A

Parenchymal cells in the phloem

225
Q

The bulk of the tree is ____

A

Dead tissue

226
Q

What does the living tissue of the tree consist of

A

Vascular cambium
Youngest secondary phloem
Cork cambium
And cells in the wood rays

227
Q

Define wood rays

A

Consist of parenchymal cells that transport water and nutrients
They also function in nutrient storage

228
Q

Define heartwood

A 
Trunk cells
Older secondary xylem 
No water transport
Clogged with resin 
Will not rot
229
Q

Define sapwood

A

Younger secondary xylem

Conducts xylem sap

230
Q

Fertilization of flowering (angiosperms)

A

Diploid plant body is the sporophyte
The sporophyte produces specialized structures which cells undergo meiosis in order to become a multicellular gametophyte

231
Q

Sporophyte in angiosperms produces what type of specialized reproductive structures

A

Anthers

Ovules

232
Q

The gametophyte of angiosperms is the plants _____ generation which produces ______ by _____

A

Haploid
Gametes
Meiosis

233
Q

Spores in the ___ give rise to the ___ gametophytes which are ____

A

Anthers
Male
Pollen grains that produce sperm

234
Q

A spore within an ovule produces the ____ which is the ____ gametophyte containing an _____

A

Embryo sac
Female
Egg cell

235
Q

Pollination of angiosperms is ___

A

The arrival of pollen grains into a stigma

236
Q

A pollen tube grows into the ovule and sperm passes through it fertilizing both the egg and a second cell called ____

A

Double fertilization

237
Q

The ovule develops into a seed and is now a ____ and its nucleus divides by mitosis and produces ____

A

Triploid (3n)

Endosperm

238
Q

The zygote divides by mitosis producing the embryo and the ovule looses most of its water and develops a _____ enclosing the endosperm and the embryo

A

Resistant seed coat

239
Q

The seed may remain dormant and only begin to grow when ____

A

Favourable environmental conditions occur (seed dormancy)

240
Q

Describe eudicots seeds

A

Two cotyledons
Apical meristems lack protective sheaths
Endosperm is absorbed by the cotyledons

241
Q

Describe monocot seeds

A

Single cotyledon
Apical meristems have a protective sheath
Endosperm is present

242
Q

Hormonal changes which Occur as a result of fertilization trigger the ovary to develop into a ___

A

Fruit

243
Q

The fruit functions to ___

A

Protect the seed and to aid in dispersal
Mature fruits may either be fleshy or dry
Fleshy fruits= oranges
Dry fruits= beans

244
Q

Seedling germination occurs when…

A

When a seed absorbs water
The seed begins to expand as a result of water absorption causing the seed coat to rupture
The embryo now begins to grow and produce enzymes
The enzymes function to digest the endosperm releasing nutrients that can be used as energy

245
Q

Define vegetative reproduction

A

Asexual reproduction
Involved fragmentation of the plant body
Each fragment gives rise to a genetically identical daughter plant
Ie) garlic

246
Q

Explain plant importance

A

Provides shelter for animals fungi and bacteria
Provides food for animals
Roots function to prevent erosion of soil
Photosynthesis reduced atmospheric CO2 and provides the atmosphere with o2
Plants benefit humans immensely
-lumber paper food industrial chemicals ext

247
Q

Explain how plants acquire nutrients from soil and air

A

Plant roots absorb water minerals and oxygen from the soil
Leaves take CO2 from the air
Photosynthesis uses water CO2 and minerals to produce sugars composed of carbon oxygen and hydrogen
Inorganic ions such as nitrogen and magnesium are components of photosynthetic pigments
Inorganic ion phosphorus is a major component of DNA and RNA as well as ATP and phospholipids

248
Q

Describe plants control of solute uptake

A

The absorptive surface area of the root is dramatically increased by the presence of root hairs
Water and solutes must first enter the xylem before they can be transported up the plant body
To enter the xylem the water may either move through cells (intracellular route) to move through the epidermis and the cortex
Or it may move between the cells (extracellular route)

249
Q

Explain the intracellular pathway of solute uptake

A

Moves through the cell membrane of a root hair
Through the plasmodesmata then through the cytoplasmic content of the cortex cells and endodermal cells finally into the xylem vessels

250
Q

Explain the extracellular pathway of solute uptake

A

Moves through the cell wall of all epidermal and cortex cells and within intracellular spaces
The waxy barrier called the Casparian strip in the walls of the endodermal cells forces the water through the endodermis and into the xylem

251
Q

Describe transpiration

A

Pulls water up the xylem vessels
Root pressure can only push the xylem sap up a few meters
Solute transport raises the water pressure in the xylem
The xylem sap is pulled upward from the soil through a transpiration cohesion tension mechanism

252
Q

Define xylem sap

A

Inorganic nutrient solution that travels up xylem from a plants roots and shoots

253
Q

Define transpiration

A

Loss of water from the leaf
Exerts a pull on xylem sap
Cohesion causes the water molecules to adhere to one another
Relays the pull of transpiration along a string of water molecule all the way to the roots
The adhesion of water molecules to the exterior of the xylem cells aids to combat the force of gravity

254
Q

Explain guard cells

A

Surround the stoma and control the opening thus controlling transpiration
As the guard cells open the stomata they actively pump potassium in increasing the solute concentration within the cell
Water follows the solutes because of osmosis
When the stomata looses K the guard cells close

255
Q

What are the 3 cues for the stomata opening

A

1) increased sunlight cause the guard cells to take up K if water is lost too fast the guard cells close
2) decreased internal CO2 has the same effect as increase sunlight
3) an internal daily timing mechanism triggers K uptake and stomata opening in the morning and stomata closing in the evening

256
Q

Describe the phloem

A

Transports sugars made by photosynthesis via a pressure flow mechanism

257
Q

Explain the phloems pressure flow mechanism

A

1) sugar is loaded into phloem tube at the source which raised the solute concentration within the tube
2) water is the drawn into the tube by osmosis raising the tube pressure
3) sugar and water leave the tube at the sugar sink
(The increase in pressure at the sugar source and decrease in the pressure at the sugar sink causes the sap within the phloem to move from source to sink

258
Q

Describe fertilizers

A

Help to prevent nutrient deficiencies
The availability of nutrients within the soil affect plant growth and health
The absence of certain nutrients lead t particular plant symptoms which can be identified
The addition of inorganic fertilizer or compose to soil can alleviate these deficiencies
Stunting of growth wilting of the plant and changes in the colour all indicate nutrient deficiencies

259
Q

Describe nitrogen deficiencies

A

Most common
Stunted growth and yellow/green leaves
Affects the older leaves first

260
Q

Describe phosphorus deficiencies

A

Second most common
Sometimes purplish leaf colour
Reduced growth rate
Spindly and brittle new growth

261
Q

Describe potassium deficiencies

A

Yellow leaves with brown margin
Localized symptoms
Stunted growth

Bio 1010 (4 decks)

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