Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons
A
Ion
2
Q
any chemical that can carry electrical charge when dissolved in H2O
A
Electrolyte
3
Q
material through which ions can move freely toward each other
A
Conductor
4
Q
material that separate oppositely charged ions unable to move
A
Insulator
5
Q
potential energy created by difference between amounts of electrical charge present at two points like the inner surface and outer surface of a membrane
A
Electrochemical Potential
6
Q
membrane potential when the membrane is ‘resting’ (not conducting electrical impulses)
A
Resting Potential (Vrest)
7
Q
change in membrane potential whose magnitude is proportional to stimulus strength
A
Graded Potential
8
Q
rapidly moving wave of electrical charge that move along membrane of an active excitable cell
A
Action Potentials (AP)
9
Q
channels whose molecular conformation responds to the changes in electrical potential across the cell membrane
A
Voltage-Gated Channel
10
Q
stimulus strong enough to initiate an action potential by triggering opening of the activation gate of the voltage-gated Na+ channels
A
Threshold Stimulus
11
Q
stimulus NOT strong enough to open the activation gate of the voltage gated Na+ channels and initiate AP
A
Sub-threshold Stimulus
12
Q
process of making membrane potential less negative
A
Depolarization
13
Q
process of regaining Vrest after depolarization
A
Repolarization
14
Q
undershooting Vrest on repolarization due to excess K+ ions, moves membrane further from threshold
A
Hyperpolarization
15
Q
brief space of time in which excitable membrane resistant to further stimulation
A
Refractory Period
16
Q
short period during and immediately after depolarization where a neuron or myofiber will not respond again to any stimulus, no matter how strong
A
Absolute Refractory Period
17
Q
follow absolute refractory period where a neuron/myofiber will only respond to strong stimulus
A
Relative Refractory Period
18
Q
spread of actin potential along membrane of excitable cell
A
Propagation
19
Q
used in unmyelinated axons and muscle cells
A
Continuous Propagation
20
Q
used in myelinated axons
A
Saltatory Propagation
21
Q
high lipid content of sheath (excellent electrical insulator)
A
Myelin
22
Q
unmyelinated areas of myelinated axon found between myelin sheaths
A
Nodes of Ranvier
23
Q
groups of neurons that influence each other’s activity by communicating at neuronal synapses
A
Neuronal Pathways
24
Q
site/junction where electrical signals are transmitted from one cell to another
A
Synapse
25
found between successive neurons in neuronal pathway
Neuronal Synapse
26
found between somatic x-motor neurons and myofibers of skeletal muscles
Neuromuscular Junctions
27
found between autonomic motor neurons and autonomic effectors (smooth muscle & glandular cells)
Neuroeffector Junctions
28
neuron that carries impulses into synapse
Presynaptic Neuron
29
neuron that carries impulses away from synapse
Postsynaptic Neuron
30
two cells forming synapses separated by physical space (synaptic cleft)
Chemical Synapse
31
narrow space separating presynaptic neuron from postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic Cleft
32
extracellular signal molecules released by neurons that diffuse across synaptic cleft to stimulate activity in a postsynaptic neuron or effector
Neurotransmitters (NT)
33
membrane proteins found on postsynaptic neurons that bind a specific NT & generate response in the postsynaptic cell
Neurotransmitter Receptor
34
depolarizing graded potential brings postsynaptic neuron closer to threshold
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
35
hyper-polarizing graded potential that moves a postsynaptic neuron further from threshold for creating APs
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
36
process of integrating the input from multiple synapses
Summation
37
release of NT from more than one synaptic knobs on single postsynaptic neuron
Spatial Summation
38
stimulation of NT release from same presynaptic knobs in rapid succession on postsynaptic neuron
Temporal Summation
39
membrane potential of postsynaptic neuron held nearer to threshold then normal but not yet above threshold
Facilitation
40
signal entering in section of neuronal pathway excites great number signals leaving
Divergent Pathways
41
signals from multiple input fibers come together to excite single output fiber
Convergent Pathways
42
carry impulses away from CNS out to motor effectors
Efferent (motor) Neurons
43
control skeletal muscle contraction
Somatic Motor Neurons
44
control involuntary effectors
Autonomic Motor Neurons
45
pupil diameter changes due to contraction of smooth muscle within iris
Pupillary Light Reflex
46
dilation of pupil response to pain, excitement, & dim light
Mydriasis
47
fight or flight
Sympathetic Division
48
rest and repair
Parasympathetic Division
49
constriction of pupil response to increased light entering the pupil
Miosis
50
cell bodies found in CNS & axons termination autonomic ganglia where they form synapses (long)
Preganglionic Neuron
51
cell bodies of neuron found in autonomic ganglia & terminate involuntary effectors (short)
Postganglionic Neuron
52
activated by acetylcholine
Cholinergic Receptors
53
ligand-gated Na+ (cation) channel
Nicotinic Receptors
54
Gprotein coupled receptors that activate production intracellular messengers
Muscarinic Receptors
55
activated by binding of two catecholamines
Adrenergic Receptors
56
responds most strongly to NE
x-Adrenergic Receptors
57
effort to prepare animal for maximal skeletal muscle activity
Fight-or-Flight Response
58
chemical signals that regulate metabolic activites
Hormones
59
hormones that regulate release of other hormones
Trophic Hormones
60
any cell that contains receptors that bind & react to specific hormones
Target Cells
61
proteins on surface or within target cells that specifically bind & respond to hormones
Receptor
62
hormones released by endocrine glands that are carried in the plasma
Endocrines or Circulating Hormones
63
hormones released by neurons carried in the plasma
Neuroendocrine (Neurohormones)
64
local hormones that act on neighboring cells
Paracrine
65
local hormones that at on the same cell that secreted them
Autocrine
66
hormone synthesized from chloresterol
Steroid
67
intracellular small molecules & ions that act as signals to activate various components of intracellular signaling pathway
2nd Messengers
68
proteins that can be switched from inactive to active in response to a signal
Molecular Switches
69
enzyme that catalyze addition of phosphate to protein effectors to turn ON
Protein Kinases
70
enzymes that catalyze removal of phosphate from protein effectors to turn OFF
Protein Phosphatases
71
molecular switches that link plasma membrane receptors with intracellular signaling pathways
G-proteins
72
effects of small amounts of hormone binding to target cells are greatly amplified in intracellular signaling pathways allowing a very small amount of a hormone binding to a receptor to activate a powerful response throughout its target cell
Amplification
73
collecting center for sensory information about the internal environment of the animal
Hypothalamus
74
gland that secrete hormones
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
75
stalk-like structure that connects pituitary gland to hypothalamus
Hypophyseal Stalk or Infundibulum
76
glandular portion of pituitary gland consisting of secretory epithelial cells
Adenohypohysis (anterior pituitary gland)
77
nervous portion of pituitary gland that consists of axons and axon terminals of neurons that have cell bodies in hypothalamus
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary gland)
78
secrete growth hormone (GH/somatotropin)
Somatotrophs
79
secretes prolactin (PRL)
Lactotrophs
80
secrete primarily adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH)
Coricotroph
81
secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyrotrophs
82
secrete 2 gonadotropins
Gonadotrophs
83
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Gonadotropins
84
releasing hormones (RH) and inhibiting hormones (IH); most are peptides
Trophic Hormones
85
carry trophic hormones released from neurons to the adenohypophysis
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal Portal System
86
system of blood vessels in which blood after passing through capillary bed, conveyed through veins to a capillary bed of a second organ
Portal System
87
secreted by somatrotopes of anterior pituitary gland
Growth Hormone (GH) / Somatotropin
88
hormone produced at higher than normal levels (exaggerated)
Hypersecretion
89
high level of GH during adolescent growth period
Gigantism (Giantism)
90
hormone produced at lower than normal level (diminished)
Hyposecretion
91
lack of production of GH or IGF which causes decreased lengthening of bones during adolescent growth
Dwarfism
92
secreted by lactotropes of anterior pituitary gland
Prolactin (PRL)/Lactogenic Hormone
93
proteinaceous secretory substances surrounded by follicular cells that synthesize and secrete two thyroid hormones
Thyroid Follicles
94
consists of 2 lobes of glandular tissue located along trachea just below the larynx
Thyroid Gland
95
proteinaceous secretory substance
Colloid
96
found between numerous thyroid follicles
Parafollicular Cells (C-cells/Clear Cells)
97
cells found between numerous thyroid follicles
Parafollicular Cells (C-cells/Clear Cells)
98
thyroxine (T4) & triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroid Hormones
99
resting rate of calorie expenditure by the body
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
100
congenital hypothyroidism results in severely stunted physical & mental growth
Cretinism
101
enlarged thyroid gland either hypothyroid conditions
Goiter
102
ingesting with food (fat-soluble) or exposure to skin
Vitamin D
103
vitamin D deficiency due to lack of sun exposure and diet
Rickets
104
stimulate increased absorption of dietary Ca2+ by intestine; active form of Vitamin D
Calcitriol
105
four small lobes of glandular tissue embedded in the dorsal side of the thyroid gland
Parathyroid Gland
106
peptide hormone produced by parathyroid gland
| - essential for survival -
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) / Parathormone
107
32 amino acid peptide hormone released by parafollicular cells of Thyroid gland in response to increased Ca2+ in plasma
Calcitonin (CT)
108
modified sympathetic ganglion that secretes a neuronhormone during flight or fight response to acute stressful conditions
Adrenal Medulla
109
secrete corticosteroids
Adrenal Cortex
110
steroid hormones secreted by adrenal cortex
Corticosteroid
111
outer region of the cortex
| secretes mineralocorticoids - aldosterone
Zona Glomerulosa
112
middle region of the cortex
| secretes glucocorticoids - cortisol
Zona Fasciculata
113
essential for animal survival
Cortisol
114
regulation of cortisol is under exclusive control of hypothalamus and pituitary gland axis using
Corticotropin-releasing Hormone (CRH)
115
inner region of the cortex
| secretes gonadocorticoids
Zona Reticularis
116
regulation of cortisol is under exclusive control of hypothalamus and pituitary gland axis using
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
117
relatively large organ found near the stomach and the duodenum that is both an endocrine gland and exocrine gland
Pancreas
118
contains two major types of hormone-secreting cells
- Alpha Cells
- Beta Cells
Islets of Langerhans (Pancreatic Islets)
119
secrete glucagon stimulated by low blood glucose levels
Alpha Cells
120
stimulates increases in blood glucose levels
Glucagon
121
secretes insulin stimulated by high blood glucose levels
Beta Cells
122
stimulates decreases in blood glucose levels
Insulin
123
breakdown of glycogen into glucose
Glycogenolysis
124
production of ketone bodies
Ketogenesis
125
converted glucose in liver cells
Glycogen
126
glucose converted to glycogen in liver cells
Glycogenesis
127
glucose converted into triglycerides in fat cells
Lipogenesis
128
used as a circulating energy substrate for other tissues including caridac muscle and eventually the brain
Ketone Bodies
129
clusters of neuron cell bodies found outside of the CNS
Ganglia
130
found on both sides of the vertebral column
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia
131
activated by acetylcholine (ACh)
Cholinergic Receptors
132
activated by binding of the two catecholamines norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (Epi)
Adrenergic Receptors
133
secrete acetylcholine (ACh)
Cholinergic
134
release norepinephrine (NE)
Adrenergic
135
ligand-gated Na+ channels found at the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
Nicotinic Receptors
136
G-protein coupled receptors that activate production of intracellular messengers that control ion channel permeability or metabolic activity of the cell
Muscarinic Receptor
137
inner area of the adrenal gland
Adrenal Medulla
138
modified neurons with no axons
Chromaffin Cells
139
neurohormones 80% Epi & 20% NE
Adrenaline
140
GH releasing hormone
Somatocrinin (GHRH)
141
GH inhibiting hormone
Somatostatin (GHIH)
142
growth hormones stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factors (IFG)
Somatomedins
143
high levels of GH after adolescence growth period
Acromegaly
144
amine hormone called dopamine
Prolactin-Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)
145
regulates the adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
146
regulates the thyroid gland
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
147
regulate the gonads (ovaries and testes)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
148
connection between the hypothalamus and the neurohypophysis
Hypothalomo-hypophyseal Tract
149
stimulates uterine contractions during parturition and milk letdown
Oxytocin (OT)
150
continuously released from hypothalamus to maintain a constant thyroid hormone level
Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH)
151
stimulates the follicular cells in the thyroid gland to release T3 and T4
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
