EXAM 2 Flashcards
Court of the Star Chamber
King henry VIII prosecuted publishers of offensive material, 16th century
Sedition Act of 1798
US Federalists suppressed
pro-French voices
Anti-Slavery publications
banned from the 1830s
until the Civil War
Espionage Act of 1917 and sedition act of 1918
criticism of US government during WWI was made illegal
Federal Republican
Baltimore radical Federalist
newspaper opposed U.S. involvement in War of 1812; people died in mob attack, one editor maimed for life
Elijah Lovejoy
abolitionist
Frederick Douglas
African American editor of The
North Star; harassed, house burned
Hazel Brannon Smith
civil rights advocate and
editor; sued for libel; white business owners urged advertising boycott
The Birth of a Nation
White supremacist film,
provoked race riots
The Sun (New York, 1833);
copied England’s popular
and profitable penny dailies that published titillating material about lowlifes
The New York Herald
disrespectful language led to “moral war” and boycott
Payne Fund Studies
ate 1920s; concern with effect
of film presentations of violence and sex on youngsters
Seduction of the Innocent
Fredric Wertham, 1954;
anti-comic book sentiment resulted in Comics Code Authority prohibition of graphic violence and erotic depictions in comic books
Printing Press
elite lost control when information
became widely available to the masses
Abolitionist Press
swayed public opinion on slavery 1830s (north star etc)
Uncle Tom’s Cabin
portrayal of black slaves
inspired sympathetic attitudes in reader 1852
The Federalist Papers
in New York
Independent Journal by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay garnered support for constitutional form of government 1776
Communist Manifesto
1848
Origin of Species
presented
scientific evidence for transmutation as fundamental to evolution 1859
John Stewart Mill’s essay “On Liberty
1859 presented anti-oppression, liberal ideas on individuals’ moral/economic freedom
Thomas Nast’s New York Times caricatures
1871of
corrupt commissioner of public works garnered support that brought down his political machine
Yellow Journalism
Late 1800s sensationalist
writing style of Pulitzer and Hearst newspapers inflamed public opinion
Muckraking Journalism
Early 1900s during
“Progressive Era” exposed social ills and led to needed reforms in business practices, truth in advertising, labor policies, food industry
Great Moon Hoax of 1835
New York’s The Sun
article stated British astronomer discovered life on the moon through telescope; increased circulation to 19,000, largest in world
New York Herald 1874
fictitious article on animals
escaping from zoo; armed gunmen took to the streets
War of the Worlds 1938
Halloween radio broadcast
of H.G. Wells sci-fi tale – 1 million left homes to escape Martian invasion and poison gas
Enlightenment
18th-century European writers like
Rousseau, Voltaire persuaded people to seek individual freedom and oppose tyranny
Colonization of America
16th and 17th-century
promotional materials successfully encouraged settlement
American Fronteir
editors promoted towns to
attract settlers; California gold rush considered one of the most effective promotional campaigns in history
Committee on Public Information
ngaged in
propaganda and censorship activities during WWI
1920s-30s
Powerful Media Effects
(magic bullet theory/hypodermic needle model)
(CPI, propeganda, Payne Studies, War of the Worlds)
1940s-60s
Limited Media Effects
Carl Hovland, Lazarsfeld
1970s
Moderate Effects
Knowledge Gap Hypothesis, Agenda-Setting Hypothesis, Spiral of Silence, Uses of gratification, etc
1980s-Now
Powerful Effects
NIMH
Carl Hovland
Found that U.S. Army films did not affect soldiers’
motivations
3 steps to successful persuasion
- pays attention
- comprehends message
- accepts message
Lazarsfeld
A study of the 1940 presidential election found that the
impact of media exposure in terms of conversion was negligible
The People’s Choice
Three types of media effects
Reinforcement (about 50%)
Activation (14%)
The indifferent ---> electoral participation
Conversion (about 8%)Joseph Klapper
Concluded that the effects of mass communication were limited
1972 Report to the Surgeon Genera
found
that a causal relationship exists between TV violence and aggression, but “any such causal relation operates only on some children (who are predisposed to act aggressively)” and “operates only in some environmental contexts.”
Dependency Theory 1976
states that the degree to which people depend on mass media information depends on several factors (e.g., amount of disorder or conflict in society).
1983
NIMH Report on Television and Behavior
concluded that TV violence is linked to societal violence.
Joint Statement
“The conclusion of the public health community, based
on over 30 years of research, is that viewing entertainment violence can lead to increases in aggressive attitudes, values and behavior, particularly in children.”
Revisionist Perspectives
Studies that indicate limited and powerful effects can be
identified in every period
There was interest in indirect and conditional effects in
powerful effects studies (The Payne Fund studies).
Social (observational) Learning Theory
Learning a new
behavior involves observing and imitating that behavior being performed by another person.
Social Cognitive Theory
1986, Bandura
People are not just reactive, they are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-
regulating.
Individuals are more
likely to adopt a
modeled behavior if:
the model is similar to the observer. the model has admired status. the model is rewarded. the behavior has functional value.
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
behavior Environmental Factors Personal Factors
Distinctive Cognitive Traits
Symbolizing capacity
Self-reflective capacity
Self-regulatory capacity
Vicarious capacity
Symbolizing capacity
Symbols, such as words and letters, are utilized to represent specific objects, thoughts, or ideas.
Allows people to store, process, and
transform experiences for mental processes.
Self-reflective capacity
The process of thought verification
people make sense of their experiences, explore own cognitions and self-beliefs, and alter their thinking accordingly.
Self-regulatory capacity
People evaluate their own behavior and respond
accordingly.
Vicarious capacity
Ability to learn without direct
experience
Four Component Processes
Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and
motivation
Attention
Individuals cannot learn much by observation
unless they perceive and attend to the significant features of the modeled behavior.
Attention Depends on
Message characteristics (Salience and attractiveness)
Perceived functional value of the action
One’s goals and interests
One’s cognitive skills
Retention
Modeled behavior must be remembered or retained in order to be used again.
Retention Involves
Cognitive rehearsal
Elaboration (Comparing the action to already existing
thoughts relevant to the action)
Filing the behavior into long-term memory
Motor Reproduction
Individuals must have physical abilities and skills to replicate the action.
Self-Efficacy
Belief that one can enact the behavior before the
attempt
Motivaton
Socially learned behaviors may not be
enacted unless one is motivated.
Motivational Rewards or Punishments
Direct (Direct results of own action)
Self-produced (Self-satisfaction and self-worth)
Vicarious (Observation of other’s behavior and subsequent
outcomes)
Inhibitory Effects
It may inhibit or restrain
a person from acting in a previously learned, reprehensive, anti-social, behavior.
Disinihibitory Effects
It may lift previously
learned internal restraints on certain behaviors
Disinhibitory Devices
Moral justification Advantageous comparison Euphemistic labeling Displacement of responsibility Diffusion of responsibility Distortion of the consequences Dehumanization Attribution of blame
Moral Justification
People believe that their otherwise
deplorable actions are justifiable because they serve a “higher” or “moral” purpose.”
Advantageous Comparison
By comparing own deplorable acts with even more serious behaviors of others, people make own acts look trivial by comparison.
Euphemistic Labeling
By calling an otherwise reprehensible act
something other than what it really is, one can engage in an act without self-contempt, and the act is made benign and acceptable.
Displacement of Responsibility
Some people can readily depart from their moral principles.
“I did it bc I was ordered to do so”
Diffusion of Responsibility
When deplorable acts are performed in a
group, individuals feel less personally responsible.
Distortion of the Consequences
After people engage in deplorable acts, they can ease their conscience by ignoring or distorting the harm caused by their conduct.
Dehumanization
Victims are looked upon
as subhuman and thus can be treated inhumanly.
Attribution of Blame
Blaming the victims or the situation
Persuasion
Effects of persuasive messages are intended
Attitude as a mediator
persuasive message-> attitude -> Behavior
Persuasion Models
McGuire’s Matrix Model
Cognitive Response Theory
Self-Validation Theory
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Social Judgment Theory
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change Automatic Activation Model
1920s-30s Persuasion
Propaganda
1929 Persusuion
Radio news of wall street crash brought nationwide panic
Carl Hovland 5 variables of persuasive power
Credibility of message source
Type of message appeal
Order of arguments presented Audience identification with certain groups
Personality of audience
Paul Lazarsfeld Two step flow
Media messages influenced certain opinion leaders
in a community
These opinion leaders had influence to change
others’ attitudes
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Inconsistencies between attitude and action cause anxiety that must be resolved
McGuire’s Matrix Model
Input (Variables under control): source, message, recipient, channel, context
Outputs (variables under control of audience): information, exposure, attention, interest, comprehension, yielding/changing attitude
downside of this model: assumes sequential process
Cognitive Response Theory
Yielding Depends on cognitive response to message (what audience thinks about the message)
Self-validation Theory
persuasion depends on
audience member’s confidence in his/her thoughts in response to message
Favorable thoughts about message increase with message
validity, decrease with message doubt
Unfavorable thoughts about message decrease with
message validity, increase with message doubt
Elaboration likelihood Model
exposure, attention, interest, comprehend, acquisition, yielding, memory, retrieval, action, reinforcement of the attitude attitudinal consolidation
Persuasion depends on a person’s likelihood to pay
attention to and think very carefully about a message
As likelihood of mental elaboration increases, the central
route to persuasion is more dominant. As likelihood of mental elaboration decreases, the peripheral route is more dominant
Central Route to Persuasion
Requires cognitive effort
Attention and careful analysis used to judge message merit
More successful in long-term attitude change
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
Occurs in ways that do not involve cognitive effort
Short-term success, but cues may weaken over time
Motivation Variables for Elaboration (ELM)
Personal relevance of information – use of “you” in
message
need for cognition
Frame message in line with audience values or self-perceptions
Peripheral Cue Variables (ELM)
Likability or attractiveness of message source
Credibility of source – use of experts Number of arguments contained in message
Length of arguments
Bandwagon effect – number of others agreeable to
message (everybody’s doing it)
Variables in Persuasion Process (ELM)
Source variables – attractiveness, credibility, believability, features of communication (music)
Message variables – number of arguments in a message or length of arguments, number of people in agreement, unexpected or unusual message, channel of origin
Recipient variables – mood, personal relevance, need for cognition, ability to engage in message elaboration
Social Judgement Theory
People make judgments about differing views held
regarding an issue
Other possible viewpoints are deemed acceptable,
not acceptable, or neutral
Latitude of acceptability influenced by degree that
personal identity is defined by viewpoint on issue
Strong connection between beliefs and concept of
self-identity increases likelihood of rejection of other beliefs
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
People decide how to behave based on 2 criteria
Person’s attitude toward the behavior itself
Perceptions about others’ views of behavior
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
included in revised TRA
Behavior is also based on the person’s perceived control over
the behavior—is it easy or difficult
Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)
What motivates people to engage in protective behaviors
Threat appraisal
How serious is threat
How likely to affect you
Coping appraisal
How effective is protection
Are you capable of performing protective behavior
Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change
Behavior change is a process that occurs in distinct stages Precontemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance
Automatic Activaton
behavior follows attitude
automatically without reasoning or reflection
Gender Differences and emotions
ome researchers
argue that men are more persuasive and women are more persuadable
Automatic attitude availabilty
ven long-held
attitudes are subject to change
Obscenity
Material appeals to a shameful, sick, morbid, or lustful interest
in sex
Material is offensive beyond community standards regarding
sexual depictions
Material lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific
value
5 types of pornography
- Depictions of sexual violence like rape
- Depictions of degrading or humiliating activities
- Depictions of consensual, nonviolent intercourse
- Depictions of nudity
- Child pornography
Bleakley et al. (2008)
Exposure to sexual content increases adolescent sexual activity
Sexually active adolescents more likely to view sexual content
in media
x-rated video
Domination
Reciprocity
Exploitation
Autoeroticism
Effects of Exposure to Highly Explicit Content
Sexual Arousal
Changes in values and attitudes
Changes in behaviors
Tends to enhance aggressive tendencies
Excitation Transfer
intensifies unrelated affective states,
however…
Pleasing, nonarousing nude photographs calmed aggressive
behavior
Excitation and valence model
Pleasing nonarousing erotica counteracts anger
Displeasing nonarousing erotica increases annoyance
Displeasing nonarousing erotica increases aggression
when provoked, through excitation transfer
Pleasing arousing erotica transfers calmness
Contextual variables that contribute to prevailing
tone
Context of viewing – alone; with spouse; with male
friend; grandmother; or preacher
Seriousness or triviality
Artistic value or intent
Degree of explicitness/relevance to plot
Cultural context
3 mitigating factors to reduce harmful effects (Bryant
& Rockwell, 1994)
Clear, well-defined family value system
Free and open discussion encouraged and practiced in family Active viewing and critical analysis of program content
4 Major effects of consuming porn
Addiction
Escalation
Desensitization
Tendency to act out or copy
Factors that increase Violence
Provocations and frustrations Poverty Easy access to guns Drug and alcohol use Gang involvement Parental neglect Violent media
National Television Violence Study
Definition of violence: Any overt depiction of a credible threat of physical force
Five key elements of context that make
people susceptible to negative effects
A perpetrator who is an attractive role model
Violence that seems justified
perpetrated by “good” characters.
Violence that goes unpunished
Minimal consequences to the victims Violence that seems realistic to the viewer
Catharsis Theory
Acting aggressively or even viewing
aggression purges angry feelings and aggressive tendencies or drives….
No data to support this theory
Pressure Cooker Theory
Frustrations lead to anger, and anger
builds up inside a person, like steam inside a pressure cooker, until it is released.
Types of Effects from violent media
imitation
disinhibition
arousal
desensitization
memory
network consisting of nodes (concepts) and links (associations)
Cognitive Neoassociation Model
memory is a network, watching media activates parts of the network, past experiences are remembered and associated with new info
General Affective Aggression Model
arousal is increased when exposure to mediated violence primes hostility and anger
Mental Model
Dynamic mental representation of a situation,
event, or object
Situational Model
Purpose: To represent a story or episode viewed through mass media
A type of mental model
Schema
A representation of knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus including attributes and relations between them
More abstract
Less contextualized
Less mutable
Intervening Variables
variables that enhance priming effects
perceived meaning perceived justifiability character identification perceived reality memories of prior experience
Perceived Meaning
Viewer interprets the meaning of violent actions in a particular way
Perceived Justifiability
Viewer believes the violent behavior is justified for some reason
Character Identification
Viewer identifies with the character committing the act
Perceived Reality
viewers believe they are seeing reality as opposed to fiction
memories of prior experience
viewer sees media and something triggers a memory from the viewer’s past
recipient Factors; Ability to engage in message elaboration (ELM)
distraction
general intelligence
repetition
comprehension
attention depends on
Message characteristics (Salience and attractiveness)
Perceived functional value of the action
One’s goals and interests
One’s cognitive skills
retention depends on
Cognitive rehearsal
Elaboration (Comparing the action to already existing
thoughts relevant to the action)
Filing the behavior into long-term memory
READ THE BOOK!!!!!!!!
DO IT
