Exam 2

Question 1

Social Constructionists employ a relativistic definition of crime whereby “crime is…”

Answer 1

any act deemed “criminal” by the powerful

Question 2

What is the source of incarceration disparities in the U.S.?

Answer 2

Bias in law enforcement, bias in policy making, differential involvement

Question 3

According to Labeling Theory, once an individual has been labeled “criminal”, that individual will be subject to engage in

Answer 3

secondary deviance, social stigmatization, self stigmatization

Question 4

In response to negative criticisms of an overly harsh criminal justice process negatively shaming those labeled as “criminal”, Braithwaite proposed the idea of

Answer 4

a ceremony of reintegration

Question 5

The conflict model that assumes that there are several power centers and not just one, small, all powerful elite is

Answer 5

The Pluralistic Conflict Model

Question 6

Information that should be irrelevant to legal decision making, but that may play an important rule due to systemic or personal bias is called

Answer 6

extralegal variable

Question 7

While not expressly concerned with crime, Marx’s Conflict Theory assumed criminalizing certain behaviors was just another tool used by the Bourgeoisie to

Answer 7

control and exploit the Proletariat

Question 8

Quinney’s Social Reality Theory argues that “reality is a state of mind” and that “there is no reason to believe in the objective existence of anything”. Statements about subjectivity like these draw heavily upon the European tradition of

Answer 8

philosophical idealism

Question 9

According to Quinney’s Social Reality Theory, most of the crimes that are policed/prosecuted in the U.S. would be called

Answer 9

crimes of accomodation (crimes of the powerless)

Question 10

According to Chambliss’ Legal Reality Theory, attempts at bureaucratic efficiency compromise the idealized goal of impartial law enforcement. He called this realistic need to demonstrate utility while minimizing costs the:

Answer 10

Organizational Imperative

Question 11

Mala in Se

Answer 11

Evil in and of itself (e.g., murder, rape)

Question 12

Mala Prohibita

Answer 12

Wrong because prohibited (driving laws, vandalism, etc.)

Question 13

Primary Deviance (Labeling Theory)

Answer 13

First random misbehavior that causes one to be labeled as a criminal/deviant.

Question 14

Secondary Deviance (Labeling Theory)

Answer 14

Any deviance/acts of misbehavior after being labeled a criminal/deviant

Question 15

Hegemony

Answer 15

the power/dominance one social group has over another

Question 16

Marxist hegemony

Answer 16

Bourgeoisie

Question 17

Radical/critical hegemony

Answer 17

modern scientific thought

Question 18

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy and how does it relate to the Labeling Theory?

Answer 18

A self-fulfilling prophecy in relation to Labeling Theory is when a person labeled as a criminal internalizes the label as an irrevocable part of themselves and then makes it true by committing more crime

Question 19

According to Hagan’s Power Control Theory, almost all people are initially indoctrinated into the patriarchal system by:

Answer 19

the family

Question 20

In Messerschmidt’s “Doing Gender” theory/model, the dominant cultural script that compels men to strive for competitive individualism, aggressiveness, and control over others is called

Answer 20

Hegemonic masculinity

Question 21

According to Cornish and Clarke’s Rational Choice Theory, the most important determinant of crime is

Answer 21

choice (or a sequence of choices)

Question 22

The “routine” in Cohen and Felson’s Routine Activities Theory refers to

Answer 22

everyday activities and the mundane/normal occurrences in life

Question 23

Using a security camera to reduce crime in Routine Activities Theory is an example of a

Answer 23

mechanical strategy

Question 24

According to Biosocial examinations of crime, which neurotransmitters are associated with aggression or others forms of antisocial behavior?

Answer 24

dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

Question 25

In biosocial studies of behavioral genetics, researchers argue that there is evidence of a genetic influence on behavior when an attribute of one subject matches that of another subject who shares genetic overlap. When this attribute is present in both subjects it is called

Answer 25

concordance

Question 26

The attempt to isolate the effects of nature from the effects of nurture motivate research like

Answer 26

adoption studies, fraternal twin studies, and identical twin studies

Question 27

According to Evolutionary Psychology, males have adopted two alternative behavioral strategies to ensure reproduction. The one that encourages a lack of long-term commitment, the use of violence, and greater dishonesty (all strong correlates of crime) is

Answer 27

the r strategy

Question 28

According to Psychological Theories of crime, a "psychopath" has these characteristics

Answer 28

a callous and unemotional affect, lack of guilt or empathy, an interpersonal style that is charming/manipulative, a parasitic lifestyle that is highly impulsive and irresponsible

Question 29

A psychopath usually does not have a

Answer 29

homicidal nature that is prone to violence and aggression

Question 30

According to the selectivity hypothesis, explain the disparity in incarceration rates among women

Answer 30

The system favors middle class/white women, so those who are not middle class or white are more likely to be incarcerated

Question 31

Selectivity hypothesis

Answer 31

system favors middle class/white women

Question 32

Typicality hypothesis

Answer 32

system favors crimes consistent to female stereotypes

Question 33

According to Feminist explanations of crime, certain women are subject to

Answer 33

chivalry and leniency in the criminal justice system

Question 34

According to the typicality hypothesis, explain the disparity in incarceration rates among women

Answer 34

The system favors crime consistent to female stereotypes (powerless crimes), so those women who violate female stereotypes and commit crimes outside of the stereotypes are more likely to be incarcerated

Question 35

How are boys and girls socialized differently according to John Hagan's Power Control Theory?

Answer 35

Boys are taught to control their surroundings, while girls are taught to be controlled by patriarchal norms. This socialization comes from the family

Question 36

A theory is considered "conservative" when it maintains

Answer 36

the consistent denial of the role of economic inequality and structural disadvantage

Question 37

According to Felson's Chemistry of Crime in Routine Activities Theory, every crime MUST involve what three things? Which one can we NOT address through situational crime prevention?

Answer 37

Motivated offender Suitable target Lack of guardianship We cannot address the offender

Question 38

Genotype

Answer 38

the set of genes an organism carries

Question 39

Phenotype

Answer 39

an organism's observable characteristics which are influenced by genes and environment

Question 40

Biosocial Theory focuses on the

Answer 40

phenotype

Question 41

Contemporary Continuity

Answer 41

persistence in offending due to carrying the same constellation of problematic traits/behaviors from childhood into adulthood

Question 42

Cumulative Continuity

Answer 42

when an individual becomes ensnared in a deviant lifestyle due to the long-term, negative consequences of earlier delinquency and crime

Question 43

Moffitt's Developmental Taxonomy is an example of theory integration that combines

Answer 43

biosocial theory with strain theory

Question 44

According to Moffitt's Developmental Taxonomy, what is the larger group of offenders containing nearly 90% of delinquents?

Answer 44

Adolescent-Limited Offenders

Question 45

Adolescent-Limited Offenders tend to engage in benign, non-violent low level offenses with little to no long term consequences. These forms of rebellion include behaviors like:

Answer 45

marijuana use, shoplifting, vandalism

Question 46

Sampson and Laub's Age-Grade Theory of Informal Social Control is a theory integration that combines elements from what theories?

Answer 46

Labeling Theory, Social Bond Theory, and Social Disorganization Theory

Question 47

While Sampson and Laub acknowledge the possibility of underlying pathological differences in childhood, they argue that agents of informal social control like ( ) can overcome negative child effects like difficult temperament

Answer 47

effective parenting

Question 48

According to the Age-Grade Theory of Informal Social Control, the three adult of institution of social bonding, or "turning points" that can lead to desistance are

Answer 48

marriage, employment, military service

Question 49

Social capital (Age-Graded Informal Social Control Theory)

Answer 49

an individual accrues this by investing in meaningful adult institutions, and he or she will grow less likely to offend because the risks becomes too "costly"

Question 50

Homotypic behaviors (contemporary continuity)

Answer 50

the same set of behaviors and traits over time

Question 51

Heterotypic behaviors (contemporary continuity)

Answer 51

behaviors that may manifest themselves in different forms, but are representative of the same underlying tendency (e.g.,

Question 52

Life-Course Persistent Offenders tend to have these two types of childhood neuropsychological deficits

Answer 52

verbal intelligence and executive functions

Question 53

Maturity Gap

Answer 53

physical maturity does not equate social maturity

Question 54

The maturity gap in Moffit's Developmental Taxonomy

Answer 54

An adolescent feels like an adult but isn't treated like one, so they engage in "bad" behavior" to show an adult like autonomy (social mimicry) to be treated more like an adult

Question 55

Cumulative Disadvantage

Answer 55

structural inequalities that limit the ability to gain social capital

Question 56

Cumulative Continuity

Answer 56

future opportunities are limited by a deviant lifestyle/consequences of crime

Question 57

According to the Age-Grade Theory of Informal Social Control, what role does cumulative disadvantage play in criminal persistence?

Answer 57

With less social capital/stakes in society, crime is less costly to an individual and therefore is more likely to offend

Question 58

According to the Age-Grade Theory of Informal Social Control, what role does cumulative continuity play in criminal persistence?

Answer 58

Those who commit crime are labeled by society and this label is internalized. A person who sees himself as a criminal due to this labeling are more likely to offend

Question 59

Organizational Imperative

Answer 59

maximizing performance while minimizing cost

Question 60

The nature of crime: mainstream vs. radical/critical criminology

Answer 60

Mainstream: objective fact given by law and notions of “harm” (a criminal breaks the law Radical/critical: subjective/relative definitions of crime constructed by the system (a criminal is the victim of the law)

Question 61

Research goals: mainstream vs. radical/critical criminology

Answer 61

Mainstream: identify causal mechanisms through empiricism | Radical/Critical: critically explain process of definition-making, law creation

Question 62

Research methods: mainstream vs. radical/critical criminology

Answer 62

Mainstream: use robust quantitative (read: statistical) methods Radical/Critical: use deep qualitative (read: ethnographic) methods

Question 63

Radical/Critical Theories

Answer 63

Constitutive Criminology, Left Realism, and | Cultural Criminology