Exam 2 Flashcards
Consciousness
awareness of internal and external stimuli including external events, internal sensations, awareness of self, and awareness of thoughts about experiences. Overall tis a personal awareness.
Flow of Consciousness
William James. The wandering of the mind and how consciousness fluctuates continuously.
Differing levels of awareness
Freud suggested that this is Conscious vs Unconscious. Some awareness exists in sleep, therefore some mental processing occurs during sleep or under influence of anesthesia.
EEG
Electroencephalograph. Electrodes on scalp that measure electrical activity of the brain. Rhythm of cortical activity with line tracings called brain waves.
Four principle brain waves
Beta, alpha, theta, delta.
Beta Waves
13 - 24 cps
Alpha Waves
8 - 12 cps
Theta Waves
4 - 7 cps
Delta Waves
Under 4 cps
Biological Rhythms
Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning. Many tied to planetary rhythms
Circadian Rhythm
24 hour biological cycle in humans and other species. Regulation of sleep is key in this rhythm. BP, urine production, hormonal secretions, and other physiological functions governed. Alertness, short-term memory, and other cognitive performance aspects.
Melatonin pathway.
Retina exposed to light sends signal to suprachiasmatic nucleus in thalamus. SCN sends signals to pineal gland which releases melatonin. Melatonin adjusts bio clocks.
Ignoring the circadian rhythm
Poor circadian rhythm. Jet lag is an outcome.
East-west disparity
Westward better. 2/3 day to adjust for each time zone. Eastward must adjust 1 day for each time zone.
Shift rotation
rhythm always at odds with schedule. heart disease, cancer, diabetes, ulcers. Not terrible if progressively later starting times are used and longer periods between shift changes.
Melatonin use
Regulates the biological clocks. Timing and dosage of melatonin is critical to realignment of clocks.
EMG
Electromyograph (muscular activity and tension)
EOG
Electrooculograph (eye movements)
EKG
Electrocardiograph (heart contractions)
Stages of Sleep
1-4 and REM
Stage 1
Brief transitional period of light sleep (10-12 mins). Alpha waves dominate before sleep. Theta become prominent. Breathing and HR slow.
Stage 2, 3, and 4
respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, and body T decline. Waves higher in amplitude and lower in freq.
Slow wave sleep
Stages 3 and 4. Low frequency delta waves. Stay for 30 minutes. Reach within an hour. Now cycle reverses.
REM
After stage 2 again, REM takes over. Lateral movements. Deep. Irregular breathing and pulse rate. Muscle tone relaxed and paralyzed. High freq beta waves. Dreaming is vivid, frequent, and memorable.
How many times does cycle repeat?
4 times. Rem lasts few minutes first time and goes up to 40-60mins. Descents into non REM get progressively slower. Slow wave sleep occurs early while REM piles up in second half. 15-20% slow wave and 20-25% REM. Varies greatly between people.
Newborn trends in sleep.
Newborns sleep 6-8 times a day for 16 hrs. 50% of sleep is REM but by 1 year old only 30%.
Adult trends in sleep
20% REM. Slow-wave and stage 1 increases. Older adults (60-80) get significantly less sleepiness during day than 18-30 year olds despite having 1.5 hrs less. Older adults tolerate deprivation better.
Sleep deprivation
Impairs reaction, attention, motor coordination, and decision making. Endocrine and immune system compromised. Bad at predicting when one will fall asleep.
Partial sleep deprivation/ sleep restriction
make do with substantially less sleep than normal over an extended period. Most americans no longer know what it is like to be alert.
Selective deprivation
Participants are awakened whenever certain something happens (REM or otherwise). Shows little impact on daytime functioning and task performance but effects sleep patterns. Can slip back into REM.
Rebound effect
When deprived or REM, more REM made up for later.
Memory consolidation
REM and Slow-Wave sleep contribute to firming up learning that takes place during day.
Neurogenesis
REM fosters this. Increased creativity after nap vs people whom don’t.
Sleep deprivation consequences
Hormonal changes that lead to hunger and obesity. Impaired immune. Diabetes risk. Hypertension. Coronary disease. 8 means death.
Insomnia
chronic inability to get adequate sleep. 30-35% report chronic issues but don’t seek treatment. Benzodiazepine sedatives.
Nonbenzodiazepine sedatives
Poor long range solution. Carry over effects such as sluggishness. Less effective over time. Escalating dependency. Withdrawal.
Narcolepsy
Sudden irresistible onsets of sleep. 0.05% REM dysfunction.
Sleep Apnea
Reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep. Stop breathing for minimum of 10 seconds. Hypertension, coronary disease, stroke.
Somnambulism
Sleep walking. 15% of children, 3% adults. Aggressive or sexual behavior.
Dreams
Mundane and universally 1st person. Sex, aggression, misfortune. Negative and traumatic. Self centered. Freud termed spilling over from day events to be “day residue” Affected by external stimuli.
Theories on Dreams
Wish fulfillment (Freud). Problem Solving (Rosalind Cartwright). Activation Synthesis (Hobson and McCarley).
Activation Synthesis
Hobson and McCarley. Neural activation random and dreams are a side effects. Cortex synthesizes dreams to make sense of signals.
Hypnotism
Systematic procedure that produces heightened state of suggestibility. Anesthesia, sensory distortions and hallucinations, disinhibition, and posthypnotic suggestions/ amnesia can result.
Theories
Hypnotic trance (no alterations in brain activity, so low evidence). Role playing (power of expectation), Altered state (real because of surgery with no drugs. Dissociation occurs, splitting mental processes into two separate streams of awareness).
Dissociation
Splitting mental processes into two simultaneous steams of awareness. Communication with hypnotists and external world split with hidden observer. People drive forever without realizing. Driver vs thoughts.
Meditation
Deliberate effort to alter consciousness. Styles include focused attention and open monitoring.
Focused attention
concentration of specific object, image, sound, or bodily sensation. Clear mind of clutter. Zen Buddhism.
Open Monitoring
Contents of one’s moment to moment experience in nonjudgemental way. Hinduism.
EEG recordings pick these up in meditation.
Alpha and theta waves.
Long term effects of meditation
Reducing stress, lower stress hormones, enhanced immune response, self esteem, mood and sense of control, tolerance for pain, permanent alterations in brain structure.
What is psychoactive drug?
modifies mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning.
Types of drugs
Narcotics, sedatives, stimulants, hallucinogens, cannabis, alcohol.
Narcotics/ Opiates
Capable of relieving pain. Heroin, morphine, codeine, demerol, methadone, oxycodone (oxycontin). Analgesic. Powerful high and euphoric “who cares.” Escape reality.
Sedatives
Sleep inducing drugs that decrease CNS activation and behavioral activity. Barbituates benzodiazepine sedatives. Downer drugs. Euphoria similar to drinking a lot of alcohol. Tension or dejection replaced by relaxed pleasant intoxication with loosened inhibitions.
Stimulants
CNS activity increased. Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines. Amphetamines made in lab. Able to do anything.
Hallucinogens
Effects on mental and emotional functioning. Distortions in sensory and perceptual experience. LSD
Cannabis
Marijuana, hashish, THC. Mild relaxed euphoria with sensory awareness enhancements. Hunger.
Alcohol
Ethanol. Relaxed euphoria that boosts self esteem. Inhibitions diminished. Impaired mental and motor functioning.
Drug effects vary due to
Multifactorial causation and subjectivity of experience.
Tolerance
progressive decrease in responsiveness to drug as a result of continued use.
Mesolimbic DA pathway.
Drugs increase activity on this pathway. Neural circuit from nucleus accumbens to prefrontal cortex.
Physical dependence
Need drug to avoid withdrawal.
Psychological dependence
continue to drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving.
Overdose
NS depressants (sedatives, narcotics, alcohol carry greatest risk) synergistic, so combo is bad.
Direct effects
Tissue damage, respiratory and pulmonary disease, psychotic disorders, increased risk for disease.
Indirect effects
Driving ability, IV users get infectious diseases.
K complexes
huge amplitude waves.
Sleep spindles
high freq and medium amplitude. Keeping people asleep. Clears mind of day’s activity for next day. More means higher IQ.
Stage 2 happenings
K complexes and sleep spindles. Lull to deep sleep.
Stage 3 happenings
0-49% delta waves. constructive interference so high amp.
Stage 4 happenings
High freq, low amp. Alpha and sometimes beta waves.
If awoken in SWS
groggy as hell. Eyes roll slowly up and down.
Paradoxical sleep
REM. High brain activity. But deep sleep. Form of being awake.
Purpose of sleep
Energy conservation. Protection against predators. Restore bodily resources. Cognition/ learning or memory.
How can sleep help with cognition?
As long as we go through cycles it’s cool. Nap do better on tasks. Pattern of sleep messed up.
Hypersomnia
non-refreshing sleep. Excessive sleepiness during day. Adolescence and people grow out of it.
Cataplexy
Muscle tonia while awake
Hypnogogic or Hypnopompic hallucinations
visual imagery before sleeping. Visual imagery after awakening.
Sleep paralysis
muscle tonia right before or right after sleep.
Binge
5+ on same occassion at least 1x/mos.
Std Drinks
10-12fl oz beer. 8-9 fl oz malt liquor. 5 oz table wine. 1 wine cooler. 3-4oz wine. 1.5fl oz shot of 80 proof. 0.6 fl oz alcohol.
Metabolism time
1 hr to metabolize 0.6oz alcohol
BAC
0.08 BAC = illegal to drive.
Learning
change in behavior or knowledge due to experience
Conditioning
learning associations between events that occur in environment
Classical/pavlovian conditioning
stimulus (CS) acquires capacity to evoke response (CR/UR) originally evoked by another stimulus (US).
Can classical conditioning cause physiological responses?
Yes. Immune suppression.
CR vs UR
CR weaker than UR. Can be same or different. Fear (CR) vs Pain (UR).
Evaluative conditioning
Liking of stimulus result from pairing stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.
Acquisition
initial stage of learning response tendency.
Stimulus contiguity
stimuli that occur together in time and space.
Stand out!
Make better CS
Extinction
gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned response tendency. Present CS without US.
Spontaneous recovery
resurrection of response after CS has been extinguished and period of no exposure has elapsed. CR tends to be weak.
Renewal effect
Bring animal back to environment where conditioning occurred to revitalize. Extinction suppresses rather than erases CR.
Stimulus Generalization
Responds in same way to similar stuff. Little albert and fluffy stuff
Stimulus discrimination
Organism does not respond in same way to similar stuff.
Higher order conditioning
Conditioned stimulus acts as US. Third stimulus!
Operant conditioning
Voluntary responses come to be controlled by consequences. Skinner.
Reinforcement
Event following response increases organism’s tendency to make response.
Skinner box
Enclosure for animal to make specific response while consequences are controlled.
Emit
send forth and make an organism do, rather than elicit response. Voluntary response rather than reflex.
Cumulative recorder
Records response rate in skinner box over time.
Shaping
Reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of desired response. Molds aspects of human and animal behavior.
Extinction in operant conditioning
Response no longer followed by reinforcement.
Resistance to extinction
Continues to respond despite no more reinforcement.
Discriminative stimuli
Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating probably consequences. Governed by stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
Primary reinforcers
directly reinforcing by satisfying bio needs.
Secondary or conditioned reinforcers
associated with primary reinforcers.
In operant conditioning, favorable outcome is more likely to strengthen response if follow response immediately.
yup
Schedules of reinforcement
Patterns of reinforcement presentation over time.
Continuous reinforcement
Every time response.
Intermittent reinforcement
designated response is reinforced sometimes. Makes it harder to extinguish.
Ratio schedules
designated response certain number of times before gaining reinforcer.
Fixed ratio
yes
Variable ratio
yup
Interval schedules
require time period between reinforcers
Fixed interval
first time after fixed interval has passed
Variable interval
First time after interval has passed
Positive reinforcement
response is strengthened because it is followed by presentation of reward
Negative reinforcement
response is strengthened because of removal of aversive stimulus.
Escape learning
organism acquires response that somehow decreases or ends stimulation
Shuttle box
one with shock other no shock
Avoidance learning
prevents aversive stimulation from occurring in first place.
Punishment
event following response weakens tendency to make response.
Preparedness
involves species-specific predispositions to be conditioned certain ways and not others. Explains fears and phobias that are common.
Noncontingent reinforcement
Events that occur one after another, causing a false association. Superstition. But people tend to follow logic.
Observational learning
People observe models. Need attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation abilities.
Short delays between CS and US
creates best acquisitions in classical conditioning.
Trace presentation
CS ends right before US.
Short delayed presentation
Tone begins shortly before meat. End at same time.
instinctive drift
Operant conditioning that goes against natural instinct will usually fail.
Phobias
Classical establishes. Operant maintains.
3 rat maze group trials.
Learning can take place without reinforcement
Encoding
Forming memory code. Attention required.
Attention
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selection of input. Multitasking isn’t real.
3 levels of verbal processing
Structural encoding. Phonemic encoding. Semantic encoding.
Structural encoding
Shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of stimulus. Length of word and case.
Phonemic encoding
What word sounds like.
Semantic encoding
meaning of verbal input. Thinking about what words represent.
Levels of processing theory
Deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes.
How to enrich encoding?
elaboration. visual imagery. Motivation to remember.
Elaboration
Linking additional connections to stimulus.
Visual Imagery
Using imagery to enrich encoding. Visual images to represent words to be remembered. Dual coding theory.
Motivation to Remember (MTR)
Exert extra effort into remembering to organize info in ways to facilitate future recall.
Dual coding theory
Paivio. Memory encoding is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes as both can be used for recall.
Storage of Memory
Atkinson Model. Sensory and STM.
Sensory memory
preserves information in original sensory form for brief time. Fraction of second. Long enough for recognition of stimuli to occur.
Short Term Memory
Maintained unrehearsed info (7 things +/- 2) for 10-20 seconds. May be smaller.
Chunking
Helps STM retention.
Displacement
Things leak out of STM.
Working Memory
Baddeley. Modular system for temp storage and manipulation. Includes phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, Central executive system, Episodic buffer.
Phonological loop
represents STM.
Visuospatial sketchpad
Hold and manipulate visual images.
Central Executive system
Controls deployment of attention, switching focus and dividing as needed.
Episodic buffer
limited capacity store that allows various components of working memory to integrate information and serves as interface between working and long term. Workbench.
Working memory capacity
How much one can hold and manipulate information in conscious attention. Juggle info and fend off distractions. Stable personal trait. Reduced due to stress anxiety etc. Higher level cognitive ability tied to higher WMC.
Long Term Memory
Unlimited. Inability to retrieve information is forgetting.
Flashbulb memory
Super vivid detailed imagery of momentous event. Not super reliable.
Retrieval
Context cues help retrieval of memory. Schemas facilitate retrieval. Misinformation effect can alter.
Tip of the tongue phenomena
Occurs once a week. Temporary inability to remember something.
Misinformation effect
Loftus. Recall of event altered by introducing misleading post event information.
Source Monitoring
Where did that information come from?
Forgetting Research started with…
Ebbinghaus first to study with nonsense syllables and came up with forgetting curve. Steep, but not as steep as originally thought.
Recall Measure
requires participants to recall with no help.
Recognition Measure
requires participants select previously learned info from array of options. Higher scores.
Relearning measure
Memorize info second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having it learned before. Get savings score. Amt of time saved.
Why we forget
Pseudoforgetting. Phonemic encoding instead of semantic encoding. Decay theory. Interference theory. Encoding specificity principle.
Decay theory
Memory traces fade with time. STM proven. LTM unproven.
Proactive interference
New info impairs retention of previously learned info.
Retroactive interference
Old info interferes with retention of new info.
Encoding specificity principle
value of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to memory code.
Motivational forgetting/ repression.
Freud.
Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm
15 words related to sleep. sleep not mentioned but remembered. Proves easy to illicit false memories.
Medial temporal lobe
Memory consolidation.
Consolidation
gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes in LTM. Unfold while sleeping.
What is a memory?
Localized neural circuits or alterations in synaptic transmission. Neurogenesis slightly involved in forming new circuits in dentate gyrus region of hippocampus. Time stamp memories with age of neuron.
Declarative memory
factual information. Prone to decay and requires active effort.
Nondeclarative memory
actions, skills, conditioned responses, emotional. Automatic and does not decay with long retrieval intervals.
Types of declarative memory
Episodic (chronological or temporarily dated recollections of personal experiences. Experience past) and Semantic (facts).
Retrospective memory
Remembering events from past or previously learned info.
Prospective memory
remembering to perform actions in future. absentmindedness is poor ability to do this.
Self referency
If something is relevant to us, we pay more attention.
Development
sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death.
Prenatal period
conception to birth.
Zygote
one celled organism formed by union of sperm and egg.
Germinal stage
first phase. 2 weeks after conception. Rapid cell division 36 hours.
When does mass implant?
7th day. Cell mass implants into uterine cavity.
Placenta
O2 and Nutrients pass into fetus from mom.
Embryonic stage
second stage. 2 weeks until end of 2nd month. Vital organs and body systems exist. Called embryo. Vulnerable as hell.
Fetal Stage
Third stage. 2 months through birth. Rapid body growth. Muscles and bones grow. Threshold of viability is 23-26 weeks of age.
What can effect prenatal dev?
Nutrition. Stress. Drug. Alcohol. Maternal illness. Environmental toxins.
Maturation
gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint.
Attachment
2-3 months of age infants translated to strangers with no difficulty. 6-8 and now preference for mother.
Stranger anxiety vs Separation anxiety
Peaks around 14-18 months.
Contact Comfort
Harry Harlow. Contact comfort more important than familiarity.
Biological love for babies.
John Bowlby discovered that we all love cute shit.
Secure attachment.
Comfortable with mother present. Upset when leaves. Quickly calmed upon return.
Anxious ambivalent attachment
anxious when mother is near as well. Not calmed by mother. Unpredictable response during caregiving.
Disorganized/ disoriented attachment
Kind of random movements and anxieties.
Avoidant attachment
Avoids parent. Doesn’t care about separation. Anxious all the time.
Receptive vs Productive Vocabulary
Receptive is larger than productive.
Vocab spurt
18-24 months.
Fast mapping
map word to underlying concept after one exposure. 10-13 mos is first word.
Overextension and Underextension
10-18 months.
Overregularizations
end of 3 years. Grammar rules where they don’t apply.
Telegraphic speech
end of 2 years. Ignores articles, prepositions, and other less critical words.
Stage Theory
People progress through stages in specific order to build upon older stages. Progress is related to age. Major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behavior.
Psychosocial crisis
transitions in important social relationships that shape personality by how they are dealt with.
Stages in eriksen’s theory.
Trust vs mistrust. Autonomy vs shame and doubt. Initiative vs guilt. Industry vs inferiority.
Piaget’s cognitive development
Sensorimotor period, preoperational period, concrete operational, formal operational.
Sensorimotor
birth to 2. Coordinate sensory input with motor. Develop object permanence
Preoperational period
2-7. Lack of conservation principle. Centration (one thing only). Irreversibility. Egocentrism. Animism.
Concrete Operational
7 to 11. Work on simultaneous heirarchies or classifications. Real problem solving.
Formal Operational
11 onward. Apply operation to abstract concepts and concrete objects.
Morality
Distinguish right from wrong. Morality comes from cognitive development says piaget.
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory
Preconventional, conventional, postconventional.
Preconventional Level
External authority determines morality. Punishment for wrong actions.
Conventional
Moral reasoning. Rules are necessary for social order.
Postconventional
personal code of ethics. Less rigid acceptance of rules.
Adolescence growth spurt
Brought on by hormonal changes. Rapid growth in height and weight.
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical features that distinguish one sex from another but not about reproduction.
Puberty
Sexual functions reach maturity. Marks beginning of adolescence.
Primary sex characteristics
necessary for reproduction
Menarche and Spermarche
yuck.
Volume of white matter in brain during puberty…
Grows! Also neurons become more myelinated.
Identity vs Confusion during adolescence
James Marcia. Identity diffusion. Identity foreclosure. Identity Moratorium. Identity Achievement.
Vygotsky
Claimed social interactions are critical for cognitive development. In contrast to Piaget.
Preconventional Stages
1: Punishment orientation, 2: Naive Reward Orientation
Conventional Stages
3: Good boy/ girl, 4: Authority orientation
Postconventional Stages
5: Social contract 6: Individual principles and conscience orientation
