Exam 1 Flashcards
Philosopher that inspired Psychology
Descartes - explored how people think, reasons, and field content.
Physiologist that inspired Psychology
Helmholtz - Inspired the methods to explore psychology. First to measure neural activity.
Father of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt - First lab at the University of Leipzig 1879. Reaction time experiments. Study of the conscious.
Schools of thought after Psychology’s conception.
Structuralism and Functionalism. 1890s
Structuralism
Periodic Table. Use introspection to define basic units of psychological phenomenon
Functionalism
Comes from Darwin. Things cannot be broken apart because sum of parts is less than whole. We adapted behavior to meet demands of the real world. Women loved this.
Psychology
Psyche - soul. Logos - study
Consciousness
Awareness of immediate experience.
Main proponent of Structuralism
Edward Titchener. Principles of Psychology. Flow of consciousness
Main Proponent of Functionalism
William James.
James’ Accomplishments
First psych textbook. Mental testing, child development patterns, behavioral differences between sexes.
Stanley Hall
Functionalist. 1st lab in US. First Journal of Psychology.
Psychoanalysis
Invented by Freud. Study of the unconscious. Below surface of conscious exerts great influence.
Behaviorism
Invented by John B. Watson. Psychology can only be studied by observable behavior. Abandon consciousness and study behavior only. Verifiability is key. Behavior comes from environment only. Cool quote.
Rise of Psychoanalysis
20s, 30s, 40s.
When did Behaviorism gain the upper hand?
50s
B. F. Skinner?
Behaviorism god. Insisted that internal mental effects couldn’t be studied. Animals repeat actions that lead to positive outcome and opposite is true as well. Animals act in predictable ways.
Humanism
Behaviorism was dehumanizing. So, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were like, LET’S BE OPTIMISTIC. Emphasis on what makes us human. Human behavior is governed by the sense of self.
Clinical Psych
After WWII. Veterans need to help PTSD guys and gun responsibility. First clinic in 1896. Psych testing was needed for war.
What is Cognition?
Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge. Psychology must study internal mental events to fully understand behavior. Overt behavioral observations provide an incomplete picture of what’s going on.
Cultural Diversity
Psychology was western for most of history. Unable to verify findings for ALL humans.
Evolutionary Psychology
Examines behavioral processes in terms of adaptive value over generations. Natural selection favors certain behaviors.
Positive Psychology
Seligman. Research to better understand positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence. Positive experiences, positive traits, positive institutions.
Psychology’s modern definition.
Science that studies behavior and physiological and cognitive processes that underlies behavior.
Areas of Psychology today.
Developmental, social, biological (health, physiological, experimental), cognitive, psychometrics, personality.
Areas of specialty
Clinical, counseling, industrial, school.
Empiricism
Premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation.
Rationalism
Conviction of thinking about something logically to derive conclusions.
Theory
System of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
Hypotheses
Educated guess about things.
Cognitive Psychology Studiers
Noam Chomsky - Language
Miller - Memory
Simon - Problem solving
Exposed how thinking worked, not just how we think we think.
Goals of Science
Measurement and description, understanding and prediction, application and control.
Scientific Investigation Steps
1) Formulate testable hypothesis with an operational definition.
2) Select a research method.
3) Collect Data
4) Analyze Data
5) Report Findings
Types of Research
Experimental, Descriptive/ Correlational, Naturalistic observation, case studies, Surveys.
Extraneous Variable
Variable other than independent that could influence dependent variable. Need to control.
Confounding Variable
When two variables are linked and make it hard to distinguish specific effects. Makes experiment pointless.
Random Assignment
Deals with confounding variables as it “evens out” playing field.
Correlation Coefficient
-1 to 1. Strength of correlation.
Third Variable Problem
Third variable that makes two things connected, therefore no causative link can be established.
How to evaluate research
Metaanalysis. Sampling Bias. Placebo. Social Desirability bias. Experimenter Bias.
Metanalysis
Taking a bunch of studies and statistically analyzing for consistency of effects. Test generalizability of study.
Sampling Bias
When sample is not representative of population studied.
Placebo
People’s expectations lead them to experience change though treatment was fake or empty.
Social Desirability
Give desired/ approved answers to questions about oneself.
Halo Effect
Someone’s expectations/ evaluation of a person spills over to influence more specific ratings. Overall employee performance contaminates one’s view of a single employee.
Experimenter Bias
Researcher’s expectations or preferences about outcome of a study influence results obtained.
Deception
Used if not harmful.
Animals
Harm must be justified and decent living conditions.
Quasi experiment
almost experiment, but not manipulation. As good sometimes.
Non-experiment
just no.
Descriptive Statistics
Central tendency. Dispersion of score. Correlation.
Inferential Statistics
T-test. Chi-test. F-test. Multiple regression. Generalizability.
Debriefing
Early as possible
IRB
Institutional Review Board
Neuron
Receive, integrate, and transmit information
Glia
Glue. Cells that aren’t neurons that provide support for neurons. Smaller but more numerous than neurons by 10 to 1. Supply nourishment and insulation around axons. 50% of brain volume. Some can also send neural impulses and also plays roles in memory formation. Glia deterioration leads to alzheimers.
Types of Glia
Oligodendrocytes (CNS). Schwann Cells (PNS). Astrocytes. Microglia. Radial Glia.
Oligodendrocytes
Segments of myelin sheath for several neurons.
Schwann Cells
Creates a single section of myelin sheath for one axon.
Astrocyte
Synchronizes communication between neurons. Feeds neurons. Removes waste.
Microglia
Immune system.
Radial Glia
Scaffolding to help immature neurons migrate and grow.
Charge of Cells
Negatively charged interior of cells. -70 mV.
How does action potential work?
Na+ channels open briefly.
Absolute refractory period
length of time after action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
All or none
Strong and weak stimuli do not cause different action potential strengths. Rate of firing of action potential convey strength of stimuli.
Postsynaptic Potential
Voltage change at a receptor site on postsynaptic cell membrane Do not follow all or none law, as they are graded.
Vary in size and increase or decrease probability of neural impulse being sent down receiving cell In proportion to amount of voltage change.
EPSP and IPSP
Increases/ decreases likelihood of sending signal.
What happens to NTM
Most Reuptake. Diffuse. Destroyed.
Synaptic Pruning
Elimination of old synapses is more important than building new ones for sculpting networks.
Acetylcholine
Ach. Attention, arousal, memory. Only one between motor neurons and voluntary muscles. Acetylcholinergic. Cholinergic.
Monoamines
Single amino acid derived NTM. Dopamine. Serotonin. Norepinephrine.
Dopamine
DA. Control voluntary movements. Degradation of neurons causes parkinsons. Dopaminergic. Reward pathway, addiction.
GABA
Amino acids. IPSPs only. 40% of all synapses. Inhibition of nervous system.
Endorphins
Resemble Opiates. Modulates pain. Response to stress. Pleasure feelings of euphoria. Comes from amino acids.
Epinephrine
Epi. Adrenergic. Cardiac Contraction. Arousal.
Noradrenergic
Mood. Addiction (less so than DA) Arousal.
2 types of monamines
Catecholamines/ Indolamines.
Catecholamines
DA. NE. Epi.
Indolamines
5-HT. Derived from tryptophan.
PNS vs CNS.
Nerves outside of brain and spine is PNS. Remainder is CNS.
Nerves.
Bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in PNS.
Somatic NS
Part of PNS that connect to voluntary muscles and sensory receptors.
Afferent vs Efferent nerve fibers
Afferent is towards CNS. Efferent is from CNS to periphery.
Autonomic NS
Heart, vessels, smooth muscle, glands. Mediates arousal during emotions. Split into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Sympathetic
Mobilizes resources of emergencies. Fight or flight. Arousal.
Parasympathetic.
Conserves bodily resources. Slow heart rate. Reduce bp. promote digestion.
Blood Brain Barrier
Permeable membrane that filters out nonsense from CSF.
Differences between CT, MRI, fMRI, and PET.
You know this.
Hindbrain
Cerebellum. Medulla. Pons
Midbrain
Substantia Nigra. Reticular formation. Ascending and Descending Fibers.
Forebrain
Thalamus, hypothalamus, Limbic system, cerebrum, cerebral cortex.
Brain Stem
contiguous with spinal cord and deep inside brain.
Medulla
Attaches to spinal cord. Most primitive and controls unconscious but essential functions.
Pons
Bridge of fibers that connects brain stem with cerebellum. Clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
Cerebellum
Little brain. Large folded structure on back of brain stem. Coordination of movement and critical to sense of equilibrium. Physical movement commands from other parts of brain.
Substantia nigra
DA releasing neurons.
Reticular formation
Central core of brain stem. Ascending fibers handle sleep and wakefulness, arousal. Desending fibers handle muscle reflexes. Also something about breathing and pain perception.
Thalamus
Cluster of somas. Integrate senses. All senses except smell goes through this before further parts of cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus
Regulation of bio needs. 4 Fs. Control autonomic NS
Limbic System
Loosely connected network of structures. Includes hypoth, thal, hippocampus, amygdala, and other stuff.
Hippocampus
Memory
Amygdala
Fear and other emotional processes.
Medial forebrain bundle
Heaviest concentration of pleasure response system.
Cerebrum
Largest and most complex. Folded and convoluted. Hemispheres divided by corpus callosum (band of fibers connection beneath thick fissure)
Lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Occipital
Primary visual cortex. V1. Striate cortex. Same thing.
Parietal
Somatosensory cortex
Temporal
Auditory complex
Frontal
Largest lobe. Primary motor cortex. Mirror neurons here activated by performing action or seeing another doing action. Acquires new motor skills.
Prefrontal cortex
In frontal lobe. Large in humans and may be executive control system area. Monitor, direct, and organize direct thought processes.
Left vs Right Hemisphere.
Left is better at verbal processing. Right is better at spatial, musical, and visual recognition. Left
Broca’s area
Speech center. Left brain.
Endocrine system
Hormones released in pulsatile manner throughout day. Controlled by hypothalamus. Pituitary gland releases great amount of hormones. Stimulate actions in other endocrine glands.
Oxycotin
Pituitary releases to regulate reproductive behaviors. Far reaching effects on complex social behavior.
Hereditary behavior
Studied by family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies. Found that environment and heredity both play roles.
Darwin’s insights on behavior
Fitness is ability to reproduce. Natural selection selects for heritable characteristics that make an individual more fit. Adaptations are important to behavior.
Brain is protected by
Skull, meninges, and CSF.
What do neurons eat?
Glucose. Supplied by astrocytes.
Botulinum Toxin
Cholinergic Antagonist.
Curare
Cholinergic antagonist
Atropa Belladona
Cholinergic antagonist
Black Widow
Cholinergic agonist
Nicotine
Cholinergic agonist
Box Jellyfish
cholinergic antagonist bust also adrenergic agonist.
Development of NS
neural tube (~24 days) forms. Neural tube from neural plate. First 3 swellings of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Then 5 swellings of telencephalon, diencephalone, mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon.
Abnormal development of NS
Spina bifida (bottom doesn’t close. Anencephaly (anterior of tube swells). Hydrocephaly (water in brain. CSF keeps getting made even though circulation sucks.)
Telencephalon
Grows so much it covers rest of brain.
Ventricles
Hollow area that remains in brain producing CSF.
Sulcus (sulci)
Groove
Gyri
Bump or ridge
Olfactory Bulb
Super old. New neurons made here all the time. Same as hippocampus.
Sensation vs Perception
Sensation of the physical phenomena. Perception is the selection, organization, and interpretation of input.
Eye levels
Cornea > aqueous humor > pupil/ iris > lens > vitreous humor > retina
Levels at which light passes through retina
Ganglion > bipolar > photoreceptors
Nearsightedness
Focus in front of retina. Long eyeball.
Farsightedness
Focus behind retina. Short eyeball.
Rods
Scotopic (general form) 100 - 125 million. Greatly outnumber cones. Outside of fovea is more. 100 times more sensitive to dim light.
Cones
Photopic (greater acuity) 50 million stubby cells. Daylight vision. Color. Concentrated in fovea.
Fovea
Only cones.
Dark adaptation
more sensitive to light in dim. Complete in 30 minutes.
Light adaptation
Less sensitive in high illumination. Acuity increases.
Optic nerve
After signal passes from bipolar to ganglion, optic nerve is bundle of axons that go to brain. Hundreds of millions of cells connect to these scant million. Intermediate cells must compress signals.
Receptive field
Area when stimulated affects firing of a cell.
Center surround
Light hitting Center has opposite effect of light hitting outside.
Optic chiasm
point where inside half of each eye crosses over to project to other half of brain. Left VF goes right, right VF goes left.
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Part of thalamus that gets visual signals and passes on to PVC in occipital lobe.
Second visual pathway
Superior colliculus from optic chiasm, THEN thalamus onward. Branches to different parts than primary though.
Feature detectors
Simple cells. Orientation of line and location of line within receptive field.
Ipsilateral connection
Outside parts of eye.
Ventral Stream
What pathway. Form and color. Lower part of temporal love. Who.
Dorsal Stream
Parietal lobe. Where objects are. Motion and depth.
Know subtractive vs additive color mixing.
Paint vs Light.
Trichromatic Theory
3 types of receptors.
Opponent Process
Antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors.
Real visual color thingy.
3 cones for color. Thalamus and retina react to red vs green, blue vs yellow, and black vs white. Ganglion activated by red, inhibited by green. Others is opposite.
Perceptual Set
readiness to perceive stimulus in a particular way.
Inattention blindness
tunnel vision
Feature analysis
Bottom up, top down.
Phi phenomenon
Evidence for top down. Whole > parts.
Gestaldt
Figure and ground, proximity,closure, similarity, simplicity, continuity.
Perceptual hypothesis
power of expectation
Depth Perception cures
Binocular cues (parallax), Monocular cues (accomodation, pictoral depth cues)
Pictoral depth cues.
linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, relative size, height in plane, light and shadow. Application of these differ among cultures. Desirable objects look closer than nondesirable.
Perceptual constancy
Things get bigger in visual field but we do not experience growth of object.
Complex cells
Motion detectors. Prefers things moving across visual field.
Hypercomplex cells
Detects orientation of line, length of line. Don’t mind where or what orientation.
Papillae
Bumps where taste bumps exist. Taste hairs all over this that die ~10 days. 5 tastes. Pattern of firing = different taste. Cats don’t have sweet receptors.
Properties of sound
Wavelength - pitch. Amplitude - loudness. Purity - timbre.
Sensory adaptation
Gradual decline in sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation.
Nontasters
Low sensitivity to PTC or PROP and have 1/4 as many taste buds per square cm as supertasters. 25% are super, 25% are non. 50% are medium. Women more likely to be super.
Olfactory signalling pathway
Axons that synapse at olfactory bulb. Routes to olfactory complex in temporal. Within 4 minutes only 1/2 of smell lingers.
Nose anatomy
Air > mucous > olfactory dendrites
Life of olfactory cilia
1 month
Anosmia
super rare.
Flavor is caused by
Olfactory and gustatory system working together.
Anatomy of ear
Outer ear (ear canal/pinna), middle ear (ddrum and tympanic membrane, ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup). Inner ear (oval window of cochlea)
Cochlea
3 canals. Middle is basilar membrane with auditory hair cells. Fluid filled. Vibration moves fluid and basilar membrane. Auditory hair cells fire potentials.
Frequency theory
Membrane mimics sound waveform and neurons at end of basilar membrane fire in synchrony with waveform. Lower pitches accurate.
Place theory
Different waveforms stimulate different areas of basilar membrane. High frequencies stimulate basilar membrane near oval window. Higher pitch accurate.
Vestibular system
balance system. Semicircular canals, vestibular sacs, fluid and hair in sacs.
Somatosensory system
Heat/cold, mechanical pressure, vibrations, noxious stimuli that damage tissue are all stimuli. Nerves are polymodal in this system.
Mechanoreceptors
Ruffini endings, merke’s discs, pacinian corpuscles, meissner’s corpuscle, hair shaft sensory receptor.
Nociceptors
Free nerve endings that convey pain. C fibers and A-delta fibers.
Thermoreceptors
Propioceptors
Pathway of somatosensory system
Receptors > thalamus > somatosensory cortex.
Pain
C fibers are slow pathway and do dull aching pain. A-delta is fast. Sharp pain.
Gate control theory
CNS and PNS open and close gate.
Brain mapping
Things that are similar (in area or otherwise) are analyzed in similar areas in brain.
Serotonin
Serotonergic. 5-HT. Sleep/wakefulness. Eating behavior. Mood. Aggression. Arousal.
