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microbiology 211 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

atoms

A

smallest unit

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2
Q

molecules

A

made up of atoms

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3
Q

atomic number

A

number of protons in nucleus

number on bottom

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4
Q

isotopes

A

elements with different numbers of neutrons
eg: 16/8 O=8 neutrons
17/8 O=9 neutrons

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5
Q

atomic weight

A

total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

number on top

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6
Q

electron shells

A

corresponds to different energy levels

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7
Q

valence electrons

A

number of electrons on outermost shell

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8
Q

ions

A

charged atoms with gained or lost electrons

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9
Q

ionic bonds

A

attraction of ions with different charges (NaCl)

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10
Q

cations

A

positively charged ions

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11
Q

anions

A

negatively charged ions

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12
Q

covalent bonds

A

when 2 atoms share electrons, produces stronger bond than ionic
usually occurs when electrons are somewhere in the middle

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13
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

Bonds formed when hydrogen atoms covalently bind to Oxygen or Nitrogen and electrons are unequally shared
creates polar molecules
polar positive bonds to polar negative and vice versa

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14
Q

chemical reactions:

endergonic vs exergonic

A

endergonic: absorb or require energy
exergonic: release energy

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15
Q

Synthesis Reaction

A

atoms or molecules combine to create something new

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16
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of molecules in a cell

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17
Q

Decomposition Reaction

A

molecules split into smaller molecules or atoms

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18
Q

catabolism

A

decomposition reactions in a cell—releases energy and requires complex molecules

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19
Q

Exchange Reaction

A

Part synthesis and part decomposition

NaOH+HCl–>NaCl+H2O

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20
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

molecules usually small and structurally simple, which typically lack carbon and in which ionic bonds play an important role

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21
Q

Organic Compounds

A

always contain carbon and hydrogen and are structurally complex

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22
Q

Water

A

essential for all living things

creates polar bond

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23
Q

4 characteristics of water

A
  • Temperature buffer
    • High boiling point
    • Low melting point
  • Ice less dense than water because ice has fewer molecules than liquid water
  • Good solvent
  • Good reactant/or product in chemical equations(bc polarity)
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24
Q

acids

A

substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen (H+) ions and one or more negative ions(anions)
HCl–> H+ Cl-

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25
Q

base

A

dissociates into one or more negatively charged hydroxide (OH-) ions that can accept, or combine with, protons and one or more positive ions(cations)
NaOH–> Na+ OH-

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26
Q

salts

A

dissociates in water into cations and anions neither of which is H+ or OH-
NaCl–> Na+ Cl-

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27
Q

why are acids and bases important?

A

living organisms must maintain and acid base balance

H+ and OH- are very reactive

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28
Q

If chemical reactions change the [H+] and [OH-], how does the body maintain the proper pH?

A

buffers

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29
Q

What will the problem be for bacteria that need a certain pH to survive?

A

can’t control environment

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30
Q

phosphate

A

O-
O—-P===O
O-

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31
Q

carbohydrates

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Sugars and starches
Made up of (CH2O)n

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32
Q

Lipids

A 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Fats and triglycerides
Nonpolar molecules
Energy storage form
Structure
Cell membrane—phospholipids
Steroids
Waxes
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33
Q

proteins

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amount of sulfur
50% dry weight of cell
Building blocks are amino acids

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34
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous

  1. DNA is genetic material of all organisms and of many viruses
  2. carries instruction for synthesis of RNA and proteins (controls synthesis of all moelcules in an organism)
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35
Q

making a disaccharide

A

Dehydration—glycosidic bond

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36
Q

complex lipids

A 
Phospholipids
Polar region
Phosphate head
Hydrophilic—water loving
Nonpolar region
2 fatty acid tails
Hydrophobic—water fearing
Make up the cytoplasmic membrane
Bacteria and Eukarya
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37
Q

DNA

A

Hydrogen bonds to hold them together
Guanine and cytosine are stronger bond
How much energy do you need to disrupt that?
-more for higher levels of GC
-bacteria in higher temperatures have more amounts of GC
structure: AT/U and CG

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38
Q

prokaryote

A 
No nucleus
No histones
No organelles
Cell wall of peptidoglycan
Divide by binary fission
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39
Q

eukaryote

A 
Nucleus
Histones
Organelles
May or may not be cell walls
Divide by mitosis and maybe by meiosis
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40
Q

bacterial size and shape

A

Size: 0.2 to 2.0 μm diameter and 2 to 8 μm long
Shapes: Most basic, Coccus(round), Bacillus(rods), and Spiral
Unusual shapes: Star and Rectangle

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41
Q

Monomorphic

A

single shape

most bacteria

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42
Q

Pleomorphic

A

many shapes

Corynebacterium sp.

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43
Q

What is the importance of surface to volume ratio?

A

The important point is that the surface area to the volume ratio gets smaller as the cell gets large

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44
Q

Glycocalyx

A

sugar coat, substance that surrounds cell

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45
Q

capsule

A 
firmly attached to glycocalyx-seen in negative stain
Virulence factor:
Protects bacterium from phagocytosis
Attachment to tissue
Potential food source
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46
Q

slime layer

A

loosely attached to glycocalyx
Trap nutrient
Prevent dessication
Motility

47
Q

Extracellular Polymeric Substance

A 
Biofilms
EPS Function
Attachment
Food
Protection**
48
Q

Eukaryotic Glycocalyx

A 
Carbohydrates covalently bound to proteins and lipids in membrane
Function
Strengthen cell
Attachment
Cell-to-cell recognition
49
Q

flagella

A 
Long appendage used for propulsion
Rotates like a propeller
Clockwise—usually reverse
Counter clockwise—usually forward
50 μ/sec = 0.0001 mph = 37 cell length/sec
50
Q

taxis

A

movement of bacteria due to stimuli

51
Q

Axial Filament

A

Internal flagellum or endoflagellum
Bundles of fibrils spiral around the cell
Under the outer sheath

52
Q

Fimbriae and Pili

A

Hairlike appendages used for attachment
Shorter, thinner, and straighter than flagella
Composed of pilin protein
Gram negative bacteria

53
Q

Pili

A

Longer than fimbriae and fewer in number
Function
DNA transfer—bacterial “sex”
Motility

54
Q

Bacterial Cell Wall Make-up

A 
Peptidoglycan
Sugar portion
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
Protein portion
Amino acid chains on NAM
Cross-linked to neighboring chain by amino acids
55
Q

Function cell wall

A

Shape
Resists osmotic pressure
Protect membrane and interior from environmental change
All bacteria have cell walls, except Mycoplasma

56
Q

Why do health professionals care about cell wall?

A

Clinically
Contributes to the ability to cause disease
Site of action for antibiotics
Used to differentiate bacteria

57
Q

Gram positive Cell wall

A

Gram positive
Peptidoglycan outside plasma membrane
20-80 nm thick
Contains teichoic acid

58
Q

Teichoic Acid

A

Regulates cations movement
Regulates autolysins
Antigenic specificity for ID
Lipoteichoic acid

59
Q

Other Features to Consider gram stains

A 
Gram stains purple 
Acid fast bacteria
Mycolic acid—thick, waxy lipid
Mycobacterium
Does gram staining work for Acid fast bacteria?
60
Q

Gram Negative Cell Wall

A 
Cell envelope
Outer membrane
Cell wall
Periplasm
Plasma membrane
61
Q

Outer Membrane

A 
Lipid bilayer
Permeable to small molecules 
Porins—protein channels
Not very permeable to antibiotics
Which ones would it be permeable to?
Contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
62
Q

Lipopolysaccharide

A 
Found only in gram negative
40% of cell surface
300,000/cell
Three parts
O-specific side chain or O antigen
Core polysaccharide
Lipid A or endotoxin
Embedded in cell membrane
63
Q

Clinical Importance of Endotoxin

A 
Weakly immunogenic
Toxic at high doses (mg/kg body weight)
Capable of causing fever, blood clots, and septic shock
Only occurs when bacteria are dying
500,000 cases of septicemia/yr in U.S.
40% die
Heat stable—pyrogenic
64
Q

Cell Wall of Gram Negative

A 
Thin layer of peptidoglycan (1-3 nm)
Found in the periplasmic space
Lots of protective enzymes
Efflux pumps
Gram stains pink
65
Q

Factors that Destroy Cell Wall

A

Lysozyme
Enzyme that breaks the NAM-NAG backbone
Found in egg whites and tears
When will lysozyme be an effective way to kill bacteria? What might be a problem?
Antibiotic penicillin
Prevents crosslinking from occurring
Binds the enzymes that make cell wall: penicillin binding proteins
Works really well on gram positive bacteria
When will penicillin be an effective treatment?

66
Q

Eukaryotic Cell Wall

A 
For protection
Carbohydrates
Plants and algae
Cellulose
Fungi
Chitin
Glucans
67
Q

Cell Membrane Structure

A 
Prokaryotes
Phospholipid bilayer
Lots of proteins
Eukaryotes
Phospholipid bilayer
Few proteins
Sterols
Carbohydrates attached at surfaces
68
Q

Proteins

A 
Essential for bacteria
Peripheral—only on one side or the other
Integral—goes through the membrane
Porin
Transport protein
Protein channel
69
Q

Fluid Mosaic Model

A 
Phospholipids are not attached
Move laterally freely
Allows for transport and resistance to pressure
Functions:
Separate self from environment
Selectively permeable
Energy production in prokaryotes
Attachment
Cell to cell recognition in eukaryotes
70
Q

Agents that Destroy Membrane

A

Limited use
Disinfectants often disrupt membrane
Polymyxin antibiotics
What type of bacteria will this antibiotic be especially active against?

71
Q

Passive Transport

A

No energy is required as the molecule with move with the concentration gradient
Simple diffusion—small molecules like O2
Osmosis—simple diffusion of water
Facilitated diffusion—simple diffusion that requires a transport protein

72
Q

Active Transport

A 
Energy is required because it is against the concentration gradient
Energy from ATP
Active transport
Single protein is required
Group translocation
Multiple proteins are required
Molecule is changed during transport
73
Q

Bacillus anthracis(anthrax)

A 
Gram positive rods
Spore-forming
Causes anthrax
Capsule
Exotoxins
74
Q

Endospores

A 
Produced in response to oxygen
Survive in soil for decades
Germinate in nutrient rich environment
Hoofed livestock
Humans
75
Q

anthrax environment and risk

A

Black soils rich in organics and calcium
Alkaline pH
Hot, dry climates
ID50 for grazers ranges from 107-108

76
Q

Anthrax Infection

A 
Endospores
Commonly occurs in hoof stock
Infected animals 
Hide or hair from infected animals. 
Most common in agricultural regions
77
Q

Forms of Anthrax

A

Cutaneous–skin
Inhalation–lungs
Gastrointestinal—GI tract

78
Q

Cutaneous anthrax

A

Most common (about 95%)
Bacterium (spore) enters a cut or abrasion on the skin
Starts as a raised itchy bump
Vesicle and then a painless ulcer
black necrotic (dying) area in the center
eschar
20% of untreated cases = death
Deaths are rare with appropriate antimicrobial therapy

79
Q

Inhalation anthrax

A 
More severe disease
Mortality as high as 90%
Person inhales spores
Like common cold (so usually don’t act on)
Progress to severe breathing problems and shock. 
Usually fatal
Spread to lymph nodes
Then to blood stream
80
Q

Gastrointestinal anthrax

A 
rare
Consumption of contaminated meat 
Nausea
Loss of appetite
Vomiting
Fever 
Followed by abdominal pain, vomiting of blood, and severe diarrhea 
Mortality 50-60% cases
81
Q

treatment anthrax

A 
Can be treated with antibiotics
Oral fluoroquinolones
Ciprofloxacin—not in children or pregnant women
Doxycycline
Treat early
Chemoprophylaxis
82
Q

Vaccine anthrax

A 
Use a live vaccine for livestock
Attenuated endospore vaccine
Human vaccine available but only given to high risk individuals
Need a booster every 6 mos
Controversial
83
Q

bioterrorism threat anthrax

A

22 people were made ill in the United States. (2001)
11 inhalation (5 died)
11 cutaneous
Anthrax spores were distributed via 6 letters sent by U.S. mail to media organizations and political offices

84
Q

Successful Bioterrorist Weapon anthrax

A

Endospores
Indestructible
Carried by wind
Respiratory form

85
Q

Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Syphillis

A

Pass the bacteria from infected skin or mucous membranes (linings) - genital area, lips, mouth, or anus - to the mucous membranes or skin of a sexual partner
Can be passed from mother to infant during pregnancy

86
Q

History Syphillis

A

16th century names
Italians called it the “Spanish disease”
French called it the “English disease” and “Italian” or “Neapolitan disease”
Russians called it the “Polish disease”
Arabs called it the “Disease of the Christians”

Now “the great imitator”

87
Q

Causative agent syphillis

A

Bacterium Treponema pallidum
Spirochete
Axial filament
Does not survive well outside of host

88
Q

stages syphillis

A 
Primary Stage 
Marked by the appearance of a single sore (called a chancre) - may be multiple sores 
Chancre lasts 3 to 6 weeks, and it heals without treatment 
No treatment then progresses
Secondary Stage 
Skin rash and mucous membrane lesions 
rough, red, or reddish brown spots both on the palms of the hands and the bottoms of the feet 
Swollen lymph glands 
Sore throat
Person most contagious in secondary stage. 
Latent (hidden) stage 
Secondary symptoms/signs disappear 
Infection remains in the body 
Damage the internal organs 
Tertiary Stage 
Neurological problems
Cardiovascular problems
Blindness
89
Q

treatment syphillis

A

Easy to cure in its early stages
First choice of treatment for syphilis remains penicillin
Other antibiotics available
Can be reinfected

90
Q

Prevention syphillis

A

Abstain from sexual intercourse
Long-term mutually monogamous relationship
Latex condoms – correct use
Not all areas covered with condom use

91
Q

ethics syphillis

A

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
1932 and 1972 -U.S. Public Health Service conducted an experiment on 399 black men in the late stages of syphilis
Never told what disease they were suffering from
Doctors had no intention of curing them

92
Q

Clostridium botulinum

A 
Motile 
Non-contagious
Botulinum toxin
Most potent toxin known
Neurotoxin
Metalloprotease that inhibits acetylcholine release
Paralysis of the motor system
93
Q

Botulism

A

A paralytic disease
Botulism is Latin for botulus, meaning sausage
Commonly transmitted by food poisoning

94
Q

intoxication v infection botulism

A

Disease is generally caused by a protein neurotoxin, not an infection
Neurotoxin in contaminated food
Flaccid paralysis

95
Q

Forms botulism

A 
Food-borne botulism
Infant botulism
Wound botulism
All forms of botulism can be fatal
All forms are considered a medical emergency
96
Q

Food-borne Botulism

A 
Eat foods contaminated with botulism toxin
Many people can become sick
Canned foods
From 1950-1996:  65.1%
   of cases due to home 
   processed foods
97
Q

Symptoms botulism

A 
Weakness of Muscles
Blurry Vision
Double Vision
Droopy Eyelids
Slurred Speech
Dry Mouth
Difficulty Swallowing
Nausea and Vomiting
Weak poor muscle control
Eat less
Often become constipated
Weak cry
Nausea and vomiting
98
Q

Infant Botulism

A

Infection, not just intoxication
Child ingests the endospores, but do not have a fully developed normal flora
Without competition, the endospores germinate and grow producing toxin
What is the number one cause of infant botulism?

99
Q

Wound Botulism

A

Endospores get into wounds
Majority of cases in drug use
Mexican tar heroin—skin popping

100
Q

Distribution of botulism

A 
10-30 cases annually in U.S.
Infant botulism is 70%
Foodborne botulism is 25%
Wound botulism is 5%
Foodborne outbreaks
California
Washington
Colorado
Oregon
Alaska—especially in native population
101
Q

Treatment botulism

A

Antitoxin—antibody to bind up the toxin
Vomiting or enemas
Wounds surgically cleaned
Breathing through ventilator

102
Q

Prevention botulism

A 
Boil canned foods 10 minutes
Do not eat from bulged cans
No “off odor” foods
No honey for children under 2
Don’t Do Drugs!
103
Q

Benefits of Botulism Toxin

A 
Botox
Wrinkles
Temporary
Migraine headaches
Eye muscle disorders
Muscle stiffness
104
Q

function of carbohydrates

A
  1. long-term storage of chemical energy (starch, glycogen)
  2. ready energy source (glucose)
  3. part of backbones of nucleic acids
  4. converted to amino acids
  5. form cell wall
  6. involved in intracellular interactions between animal cells
105
Q

types of carbohydrates

A

monosaccharaides
disaccharides
polysaccharides

106
Q

monomer

A

building blocks of macromolecules

107
Q

function of proteins

A

Enzymes—lower activation energy of a reaction
Transport proteins—allow substances in and out of cell
Toxins and bacteriocins
Movement—flagella
Structure—peptidoglycan
Regulation–hormones

108
Q

peptide bond

A

a covalent bond formed between amino acids by dehydration synthesis reaction

109
Q

RNA

A

helps form polypeptides

110
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

blueprint of cell

111
Q

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

important in protein production

112
Q

ATP

A

energy currency of the cell

113
Q

Gram negative cell wall

A

Peptidoglycan lays between outer membrane and plasma membrane
Thin layer
Contains lipopolysaccharide

microbiology 211 (6 decks)

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