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Biology 102 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy of movement (light, heat, electricity, etc.)

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2
Q

Potential energy

A

Stored energy (bonds, batteries, etc.)

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3
Q

Work

A

A force acting on an object that causes the object to move

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4
Q

Chemical energy

A

Powers life; the objects that move are electrons, which reposition during chemical reactions

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5
Q

Entropy

A

Living things need to gain energy to counteract the increase in their entropy (disorder or randomness)

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6
Q

Laws of Thermodynamics

A

1) energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can be moved, stored, released, changed from, etc.
2) the amount of useful energy decreases when energy is converted from one form to another; entropy increases
i. e. (1) photosynthetic organisms draw in, store, and synthesize energy (not create it); (2) then used by photosynthesis

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7
Q

Chemical reactions

A
  • processes that form or break chemical bonds between atoms
  • convert reactants (ATP) to products (ADP + P)
  • —– ATP: energy carrying nucleotide, carries electrons in molecular structure
  • chemical reactions can be either exergonic or endergonic
  • all chemical reactions require an initial energy input (activation energy, “kickstarter”) to get started
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8
Q

Exergonic reactions

A
  • release energy; e.g. hydrolysis
  • REACTANTS contain more energy than PRODUCTS in exergonic reactions (burning of glucose)
  • when glucose is broken down through exergonic reactions, electrons are released (ATP broken up)
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9
Q

Endergonic reactions

A
  • require an input of energy; e.g. dehydration synthesis
  • PRODUCTS contain more energy than REACTANTS in endergonic reactions (photosynthesis)
  • endergonic reaction uses free electrons (from exergonic) to bond ATP from ADP and P
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10
Q

Coupled reactions

A
  • def: the product of an energy-yielding reaction fuels an energy-requiring reaction (exergonic reactions drive endergonic reactions)
  • energy-carrier molecules are used to transfer the energy within cells; intermediates to carry energy between exergonic and endergonic reactions (only used within cells because they are unstable)
  • the products of one serve as the ingredients of another
  • the energy extracted from these reactions can create other reactions
  • e.g. photosynthesis and cellular respiration: water, CO2, glucose, and O2 cycle between the two processes
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11
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A
  • Nucleotide, most common energy carrying molecule, composed of an adenosine molecule and 3 phosphates
  • if it gives up a phosphate group, it gives up electrons (becoming ADP), heat is given off when ATP breaks into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and P (phosphate)
  • carries energy between exergonic and endergonic reactions
  • ATP synthesis: energy is stored in ATP
  • you need electrons to get ATP from ADP + P
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12
Q

Energy

A

The capacity to do work

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13
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A
  • older than eukaryotic cells
  • includes all bacteria
  • lack a membrane-bound nucleus
  • contain: bacterial flagellum, cytoplasm, ribosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane, DNA (nucleoid)
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14
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A
  • DNA contained in nucleus; rough ER; smooth ER; ribosomes; golgi apparatus; mitochondrion; cytoskeleton; plasma membrane
  • plant specific: large central vacuole, chloroplast, cell wall
  • animal specific: lyosomes, small vacuole
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15
Q

Plastids

A
  • function is dependent on part of plant
  • chloroplasts: store light-absorbing pigments
  • chromoplasts: store other pigments, give distinctive colors
  • amyloplasts: store starch
  • leucoplasts: non-pigmented, located in roots
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16
Q

Activation energy

A

kickstarter in reaction (just as much as needed); i.e. sun for photosynthesis, friction from striking a match; afterward, a lot of energy is released, and levels go down

17
Q

Hydrolysis

A

water splitting; exergonic reaction because it releases energy

18
Q

Electron carriers

A
  • transport high-energy electrons
  • FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)
  • NAD+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
  • – NAD+ –> NADH (electrons needed - 2, covalent bond - hydrogen ion needed - 1 proton+, positive charge)
  • NADH carries electrons (2) and hydrogen ion (1) (result of the Krebs Cycle)
  • ATP carries energy (electrons)
  • FADH2 carries electrons (4) and hydrogen ions (2)
19
Q

Metabolism

A
  • an indicator of cellular activity, the sum of all the chemical reactions inside a cell
  • many cellular reactions are linked through metabolic pathways and regulated through the use of enzymes
20
Q

Enzymes

A
  • employed to catalyze or speef up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy needed to break the bond
  • 1 enzyme = 1 function
  • acive site (enzymes pocket) amino acids bind to the substrate (reactant) and distort bonds to facilitate a reaction
  • enzyme specificity (every reaction regulated by different enzyme):
  • – amylase breaks starch into glucose
  • – pepsin (or protease) breaks proteins into amino acids
  • – lipase breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol
21
Q

Enzyme activity

A
  • regulated by cells, metabolism
  • influenced by pH (structure can be distorted, function can be destroyed)
  • salts can destroy function by altering structure
  • influenced by temperature; low temp slows down molecular movement, high temp alters or destroys shape
22
Q

Cells regulate metabolism

A
  1. regulate enzyme availability
  2. some must be “switched on” to be active
  3. molecules bind to enzymes and enhance/inhibit activity (allosteric regulation)
  4. adequate amounts of formed product inhibit enzyme activity (noncompetitive inhibition)
23
Q

Glucose Breakdown + Cellular Respiration

A
  1. glycolysis (breakdown - in cytoplasm)
  2. Krebs Cycle (respiration - in mitochondria)
  3. Electron Transport Chain (respiration - inner mitochondria)

Respiration equation:
glucose (C6H12O6) + oxygen (6O2) —> carbon dioxide (6CO2) + water (6H2O) + ATP (energy)

24
Q

Photosynthesis

A 
Equation:
carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) + light energy (energy) ---> glucose (C6H12O6) + oxygen (O2)
  • energy from glucose breakdown in cellular respiration, coupled reactions
  • captures sunlight energy and converts it to chemical energy
  • most life on Earth depends on the chemical energy produced by photosynthetic organisms (plants, algae, and some prokaryotes)
25
Q

pH

A

measure of free hydrogen ions

26
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • input: glucose
  • splitting of glucose molecule
  • occurs in cell cytoplasm, cytosol
  • start with glucose, energy (2 ATP) is added, glucose splits into two 3-carbon molecules, energy is taken, hydrogen is taken, NADH is formed, more energy is taken to make 4 ATP, 2 pyruvates (3C) left
  • overall output: 2 pyruvates, NADH, ATP
27
Q

Krebs Cycle

A
  • aka citric acid cycle
  • input: 2 pyruvates
  • once glycolysis splits glucose molecule, the resulting pyruvate molecules (2 per glucose) can fit through mitochondria (matrix) where Krebs occurs
  • pyruvate –> mitochondria –> break down/extraction by enzymes (extracted hydrogen, electrons) –> ATP synthesized
  • original molecule changes many times
  • occurs in second membrane
  • CO2 from cycle is what we exhale
  • for every molecule of glucose, the Krebs Cycle occurs twice (2 pyruvates - once per pyruvate)
  • overall output: NADH, FADH2, ATP
28
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A
  • input: NADH, FADH2
  • once molecules are trapped in inner mitochondria (from Krebs) ATP is synthesized and leaves
  • occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane
  • overall output: ATP
29
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • Krebs and ETC
  • in mitochondria, breaks into pyruvates
  • uses oxygen, aerobic
  • breaks pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water
  • produces an additional 32 or 36 ATP molecules
  • G3P molecule (3 glucose, 1 phosphate) intermediate molecule
30
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

a hydrogen ion gradient produced by the ETC is used to synthesize ATP

31
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A
  • muscle tissue capable of voluntary control
  • orderly striatons are due to arrangement of contractile fibers
  • produces locomotion
32
Q

Muscle Fibers

A
  • muscle cells
  • multinucleated, contain myoglobin
  • myofibrils contain the contractile fibers
  • contractile fibers: composed of “thick” and “thin” filaments; each made up of strands of protein; the thick filaments, made mostly of myosin, have small “heads” that move
33
Q

Autotrophs

A

“self feeder” - photosynthetic organisms

  • biological organisms that derive their energy from the non-living environment and use it to make (synthesize) their own nutrients
34
Q

Heterotrophs

A

“other feeder”

  • biological organisms that derive their energy from the environment or other organisms
35
Q

Leaves

A
  • epidermis: upper and lower leaf structures
  • cuticle: waxy, waterproof on outer surfaces to reduce water evaporation
  • stromata: pores in the epidermis for obtaining CO2 for photosynthesis from the air

Internal structure

  • stroma: semi-fluid medium within the inner membrane
  • disk shaped sacs called THYLAKOIDS found within the stroma in stacks called GRANA
36
Q

Chloroplasts

A
  • mesophyll cells have 40 - 200 chloroplasts each

- chloroplasts are bonded by a double membrane composed of the inner and outer membranes

37
Q

Enzyme specificity

A

enzymes have specific roles, break down specific things

38
Q

Photosynthetic Reactions

A
  • cyclic - similar to Krebs Cycle, backwards
  • light-dependent (thylakoids)
  • – input: sunlight, water
  • – output: oxygen, ATP, NADPH
  • light-independent/Calvin Cycle, C3 Cycle (stroma - contains thylakoids)
  • – input: ATP, NADPH, carbon dioxide
  • – output: glucose
  • connections:
  • – light-dependent reactions synthesize ATP and NADPH, which is used to drive light-independent reactions
  • – depleted carriers (ATP and NADP+) return to light-dependent reactions for recharging
  • water is split in photosystem 2 - releases electrons, energy pumps hydrogen ions from low concentration to higher concentration (active transport)
  • photosystems 1 and 2 are there to synthesize NADPH
  • hydrogen comes in through water in roots, is pumpes into leaves
  • oxygen is the waste product - given off by plants

Biology 102 (4 decks)

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