Exam 2 Flashcards
Anton von Leeuwenhoek
Was the first person to look at living things with a microscope. He was also an importer who looked at cloth fibers and wine.
Prokaryotic cells
Are bacteria, found in 3 shapes: bacillus, cocci, and spirillum.
They have a cell wall and some have a slime capsule, small free ribosomes, no nucleus.
Bacteria can either be gram + or gram -
Eukaryotic cells
Are plants, fungi, protists.
Ribosomes
Make proteins.
They are found in the cytoplasm and composed of ribosomal RNA.
Eukaryotes have relatively large ribosomes.
Prokaryotes or bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplast have small ribosomes.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesizes lipids, and detoxifies drugs and alcohol.
What type of cell have a large amount of s.E.R.?
Stomach cells - produce large amounts of acid.
Testis, brain, and intestine cells produce and process hormones and fats.
Liver cells would detoxify drugs and alcohol.
Bone cells process calcium.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Looks rough because it has ribosomes on it’s surface. It is used to make proteins that are exported from the cell. Free ribosomes can become attached to it.
Signal sequence
Are found on proteins which are exported from the cell. The signal consists of a few amino acids before the actual protein starts.
The protein begins of a free ribosome. The signal and growing peptide attach to a recognition factor on the E.R. The signal and protein move to the E.R., and the ribosome docks or attaches to the E.R.
Golgi apparatus
Golgi are part of the endomembrane system.
They are found in cells that produce a lot of protein, such as grandular cells.
Golgi finishes folding and processing the protein. Proteins enter the cis face of the Golgi and exit from the trans face.
Lysosomes
Are membrane bound organelles that contain a variety of enzymes used to digest food and old organelles.
The enzyme works at a pH less than 7.
Microbodies or peroxisomes
Contain enzymes to convert H2O2 –> H2O and O2
Mitochondria
Convert glucose into ATP, release CO2, and are found in plants and animals.
A high concentration of hydrogen ion molecules build up in the outer compartment of the mitochondria because the inner membrane is not permeable to the hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions can only escape through special pore proteins, and the outer membrane has a low permeability to hydrogen ions. This system has been maintained through evolution.
Chloroplasts
Take in CO2, use sunlight energy to make glucose and starch, and release O2. They are only found in plants.
Flagella
Have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.
Plasma membrane
Follows the fluid mosaic model.
Nuclear membrane
Is continuous with or connected to the endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores are protein channels which allow selective movement out of the nucleus.
DNA never leaves the nucleus. DNA is packaged on histone proteins and form chromosomes, which are seen only at cell division. DNA that is active is uncoiled and called chromatin.
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are made in the nucleus and move out to the cytoplasm.
Proteins needed for nuclear activity may enter the nucleus.
Turgor pressure
Pressure on cell walls from water in the central vacuole or tonoplast. This pressure makes a plant stand tall.
Phagocytosis
The movement of food particles into a cell by wrapping it in a bit of membrane.
Pinocytosis
The movement of water into a cell by wrapping it in a bit of membrane.
Exocytosis
The movement of waste of products out of a cell by wrapping them in a bit of membrane, fusing the membrane with the cell membrane, and releasing the substance.
Contractile vacuole
A specialized vacuole found in protists. It collects excess water from inside a protist and then expels it to ensure that the protist doesn’t explode.
Active transport
Transport of materials into or out of a cell using protein pores and ATP. The sodium-potassium pump is an example.
Diffusion
The movement of particles from an area of high particle concentration to an area of lesser particle concentration.
Osmosis
The movement of water from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. The water is diluting something.
Plasmodesmata
A tube like connection between plant cells that allows sap and water to move from one cell to the next.
Gap junction
A tube like connection between animal cells that allows ion flow or communication between cells.
Ie. Cardiac cells
Desmosomes
Spot connection between cells to connect them into sheets.
Glycocalyx
A fuzzy carbohydrate material that helps connects cells into tissue. It is part of the extracellular matrix or combination of all proteins and materials that connect cells into tissue.
Robert Hooke
Invented the microscope, looked at cork, and invented the term cell.
Plasma membrane proteins
Can function as enzymes, can identify a cell to the immune or endocrine systems, can act as a receptor site for molecules and allow them to enter or leave a cell, can play a role in cell division, and can anchor filaments of the cytoskeleton.
Cellular respiration
C6H12O6 –> 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Sun –> C6H12O6
Glycolysis
Begins with one molecule of glucose.
2 molecules of ATP are needed to begin glycolysis. 4 more molecules of ATP are produced in glycolysis.
The total is 4 ATP. The net is 2 ATP.
Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Acetyl co A
Is the second molecule in the Kreb’s cycle. It cycles though to Oxaloacetate. One GTP is converted to ATP in the process.
The citric acid or Kreb’s cycle continues…
If there are more NAD+ and FAD+. It stops at Oxaloacetate if there are no more NAD+ and FAD+. 1GTP is produced per pyruvate molecule. Two cycles occur for each glucose molecule. The CO2 produced in the Kreb’s cycle is what you exhale.
Occurs in the cristae.
One glucose molecule causes the Kreb’s cycle to turn twice and produce a total of 32-34 ATP.
ATP
Is produced when the kinetic energy of the hydrogen ion escaping through the pore protein or ATP synthase, is harnessed or used to bond a P on ADP.
Electron transport chain
Produces the most ATP, compared to glycolysis, fermentation, and the Kreb’s cycle.
Occurs on inner membrane.
Why do you breath O2?
Because it is the last electron acceptor on the electron transport chain.
The light reaction of photosynthesis…
Occurs on the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts, in plants.
NADPH and ATP are made in the light reaction and used in the Calvin Benson cycle. In particular in CO2 reduction.
The light independent or Calvin Benson cycle
Occurs in the stroma and reduces carbon dioxide and forms carbohydrates. CO2 is fixed and reduced, and RuBP is regenerated. 6 turns of the cycle forms 1 glucose molecule.
Photosystem 1
Functions to produce NADPH which moves to the Calvin Benson cycle.
Photosystem 2
Functions to split water, provide electrons and H+, and make ATP.
CAM plants
Can keep their stomata closed in the daytime to reduce water. They fix CO2 into organic acids at night and convert them into glucose in the day.
Bundle sheath cells
Are protected from the atmospheric oxygen to keep photo-respiration to a minimum.
The absorption spectrum
Shows the specific wavelength of light a particular pigment absorbs.
Plants
Are green because they reflect green light. They absorb red and blue light the most.
Plants to photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
The synthesis of 1 glucose molecule…
Requires oxygen, 54 ATP, and 54 NADPH and an enzyme at each step. Ribulose bisphophate regenerates one every 3 turns of the cycle.
C3 photosynthesis
Regular photosynthesis. CO2 enters the stomata during the day and is reduced to glucose.
C4 photosynthesis
The Calvin Benson cycle occurs in the bundle sheath cells to prevent loss of CO2.
Ie. Crab grass, sugar cane.
CAM photosynthesis
An adaptation for arid climates. The plant’s stomata is closed during the day to retain water. At night the stomata opens allowing CO2 to enter. The CO2 is fixed into an organic acid such as crassulaceic acid, and stored in a vacuole. The next day the acid is used in the Calvin Benson cycle.
Ie. Pineapple, jade plant
Microfilaments -
made of actin
Monomer
Polymer
Functional actin
Easy +/- monomer
\+/- length
Move organelles
Streaming - amoeba
Cleavage furrow
Cell division
Microtubule
Alpha and beta Tubulin
Move organelles
Cilia + flagella
Kinesin - protein
Away from nucleus
Dynein - protein
To nucleus
Made in centrioles or basal body of flagellaKinesin -
protein
Away from nucleus
Microtubule
Dynein -
protein
To nucleus
Microtubule
Intermediate filament
Very stable Don't change length Function: to give cell shape Ie. Vimentin - shape Ie. Keratin - hair, nails Ie. Neurofilaments - support nerves
The action spectrum
Is a combination of all the wavelengths absorbed, by all of the pigments.
