Exam 2 Flashcards
What are the parts of the central nervous system?
Spinal cord & brain stem
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
What is the goal of the central nervous system?
To receive sensory inputs, and process those imputs, and then coordinate a response in terms of voluntary action in emotions and thoughts
What are the afferents and efferents of the CNS?
Spinal nerves & cranial nerves
What two places is the cerebral spinal fluid located?
In the ventricles and central canal
Where are cerebral neurons located?
Cerebral cortex
Cell bodies of neurons are called?
Gray matter
Axon fibers of neurons are called?
White matter
The giant fiber bridge that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum is called?
Corpus callosum
The bulging part of a wrinkle on the cortex is called?
Gyrus
The valley of the fold (in between the wrinkles) is called?
Sulcus
Describe the significance of the wrinkles in a brain
The more connections between parts the cortex, the greater the SA but also the more wrinkly the brain: the axons try to minimize distance between connected neurons
What are some output nerves/ganglion/neurons?
Cranial motor nerves Motor neurons Motor nerve Autonomic ganglion Autonomic nerve
What are some input nerves/ganglion/neurons?
Cranial sensory nerve
Sensory ganglion
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
12
Sensory and motor nerves that come straight to and from the brain are called?
Cranial nerves
If there’s a stroke in one of the cranial nerve regions, what will happen?
There will be a function deficit
Cranial nerve number 2 is called?
Optic nerve
The brain’s own circulatory system is called?
Cerebral spinal fluid
Where does the cerebral spinal fluid drain out through?
The spinal cord
What does the cerebral spinal fluid do?
Provides physical and chemical buffering
What do the cells lining the cerebral ventricle do?
They convert water from the blood into cerebral spinal fluid
A fluid filled chamber is called?
Ventricle
In an MRI the black shows?
Water
In an MRI the gray shows?
Cell bodies
In an MRI the white shows?
Fat, bone
How does an MRI work?
Characterizes the local environment of hydrogen atoms
The more folds a species’ brain has the more ________ a species is.
Smarter
Everyone has the same number of _______?
Gyruses
The brain is wrinkly because it is needed to increase what?
Surface area
The frontal lobe is located where?
The front of the brain
The parietal lobe is located where?
The sides of the brain
The temporal lobe is located where?
Near the temples
The occipital lobe is located what?
Back of the head
What are the functions of the frontal lobe?
Voluntary motor control
Personality
Concentration/planning/decision making
Communication
What are the functions of the parietal lobe?
Somatesthetic interpretation (muscular sensations)
Understanding speech
Formulating words to express thoughts/emotions
Interpretation of textures and shapes
What are the functions of the temporal lobe?
Auditory sensations
Memory of auditory and visual experiences
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Focusing the eye
Correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences
Conscious perception of vision
What is the function of the insula lobe?
Memory
Pain
Visceral integration
What are the two deepest/obvious folds?
Central sulcus
Lateral sulcus
Where was the iron bar driven through in Phineas Gage’s head?
Prefrontal cortex
Where is the somatosensory cortex located?
Right behind the central sulcus
What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?
Termination of sensory information coming from the skin
Where is the motor cortex located?
Right in front of the central sulcus
What is the function of the motor cortex?
Cerebral neurons that initiate movement, sending axons directly and indirectly to spinal moto neurons.
Parts of the body with the highest density of sensory receptors get what?
A bigger share of the somatosensory cortex dedicated to processing
Parts of the body with the finest motor control (most muscles) get what?
A bigger share of the motor cortex
Both somatosensory relays and motor relays __________?
Cross-over
Motor neurons descend/ascend down/up the body?
Descend down
Sensory neurons descend/ascend down/up the body?
Ascend up
If you damage the left cortex above crossing over then what will happen?
You will be paralyzed on the right side of your body
What does the brain stem monitor?
Internal chemical signals
What does the brainstem control?
Autonomic functions (breathing, heart rate, digestion)
The brainstem carries out reflexive functions to respond to what?
Acute (immediate) changes to the bodily function
The hypothalamus uses neural and endocrine signals for what?
To monitor peripheral variables
What does the hypothalamus control?
Long-term homeostasis
If you only had your brainstem and hypothalamus, what would happen?
Your body would function well, but you would be brain dead
The hypothalamus has two major outlets, where do they go?
One goes back to the brainstem
One goes to the pituitary gland
Aspirin and ibuprofen reduce fever by?
Blocking COX2 enzyme production of prostaglandins
If the set point for body temperature is elevated above normal, then a person will?
Feel cold, start shivering, put on a sweater
Parasympathetic neurons cause _______ of the pupil, and this effect can be blocked by applying _________ to the eye.
Constriction
Atropine
Postganglionic neurons of the Parasympathetic nervous system release _________, while most postganglionic neurons of the Sympathetic nervous system release _________.
ACh
norepinephrine
“Sickness syndrome” (fever, loss of appetite, sleepiness) is caused by?
Chemical signals from bacteria and the immune system
Sweat glands are innervates by sympathetic neurons, but are different from most sympathetic target tissues, because sweat glands are stimulated by ___________.
ACh
Sympathetic neurons cause ________ of the pupil, and this effect can be stimulated by applying _______ to the eye.
Dilation
Cocaine
The cell bodies of the parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the?
Brainstem and spinal cord
The cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the?
Spinal cord
The neurotransmitter released from preganglionic neurons of both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system is?
ACh
The preoptic area of the hypothalamus helps cool the body if body temperature gets too high. So if the preoptic area is damaged, then?
Body temperature will rise (hyperthermia)
The receptors on postganglionic neurons are __________, but the receptors on the target tissue of parasympathetic neurons (e.g. Smooth muscle or the heart) are __________.
Nicotinic
Muscarinic
What are the effector organs of the Somatic Motor System?
Skeletal muscles
What are the effector organs of the Autonomic Motor System?
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
Glands
What is the number of neurons from CNS to effector in the Somatic Motor System?
One
What is the number of neurons from CNS to effector in the Autonomic Motor System?
Two
Is the Autonomic nervous system voluntary or involuntary?
Involuntary
“Fight or flight” represents what nervous system?
Sympathetic nervous system
Where does the Sympathetic Nervous System have it’s ganglia?
Right outside the spinal cord
Where do the nerves from the spinal cord run to in the Sympathetic Nervous System?
Run to chain ganglia or collateral ganglia, and then to glands and smooth muscles
What are the functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System?
Mobilize energy
Divert blood to muscle
Prepare to fight/flee
Where are the ganglia located in the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
Far from the spinal cord
Where do the nerves from the brainstem and spinal cord run to in the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
Run to glands and smooth muscle
What is the function of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
Prepare for digestion
Energy storage
Divert blood flow to gut
“Rest and Digest” refers to what nervous system?
Parasympathetic nervous system
Where is the parasympathetic nervous system found?
In between the tissues and organs
Is the Somatic Motor System voluntary or involuntary?
Voluntary
The Motor Division of the Peripheral Nervous System is divided into what two systems?
Autonomic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
In the Somatic nervous system the spinal motor neuron synapses onto what?
Target skeletal muscle
What is the two-step projection of the Autonomic nervous system?
- Spinal/brainstem pre-ganglionic neuron synapses onto post-ganglionic neuron
- Post-ganglionic neuron synapses onto target smooth muscle
What type of muscle has a repetitive pattern (sarcomeres)?
Skeletal muscle
Target organs often consist of what type of muscle?
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is wrapped around what?
Blood vessels
Glands
Smooth muscle, like skeleton muscle, depends on an influx of ________ for contraction.
Calcium
For contraction of smooth muscle, the calcium comes from where?
Interstitial fluid
T/F: you need neurotransmitter input for smooth muscle
F
Describe the path of cell bodies in the spinal cord
Cell bodies in the spinal cord SYNAPSE to…..
Preganglionic neurons, which SYNAPSE to….
Ganglionic neurons —–> ganglia! which send axons to……..target organ!
Where are collateral ganglia?
Outside of the chain
Sympathetic nervous system: fibers coming from the spinal cord to the ganglia are called?
White ramus
Sympathetic chain of paravertebral ganglia are connected to spinal roots by what?
White ramus
Gray ramus
“Preganglionic going into ganglion” describes white ramus or gray ramus?
White ramus
“Postganglionic leaving out of ganglion” describes white ramus or gray ramus?
Gray ramus
In the Sympathetic Chain of Paravertebral Ganglia: Convergence of inputs leaves to ___________ of postganglionic neurons
Mass activation
In the Sympathetic Chain of Paravertebral Ganglia: Postganglionic fibers join ______.
Spinal nerves
In Splanchnic Nerves: Sympathetic preganglionic fibers below the diaphragm project to?
Collateral ganglia
In the Medulla of the Adrenal Glans: Preganglionic fibers stimulate medullary cells to secrete ________ and ________ into the blood.
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Modified sympathetic ganglion is called?
Medulla of adrenal gland
In the sympathetic nervous system: Preganglionic nerves release ______ to stimulate _______ receptors on post ganglionic cells
ACh
Nicotinic
In the sympathetic nervous system: the postganglionic cells release _____ to stimulate or inhibit target tissues via _______ receptors.
NE
Adrenergic
Where is the adrenal gland located?
On top of the kidney!
Where is the medulla located?
Inside adrenal gland
______ causes the adrenal gland to release epinephrine directly into the blood stream
Medulla
In the Parasympathetic Nervous System: preganglionic cells are located in what level of the spinal cord?
Sacral level
In the PNS: the preganglionic fibers travel in what kind of nerves?
Parasympathetic nerves
In terminal ganglia in the PNS: preganglionic fibers project to ganglia where?
Near or in the target organ
In the terminal ganglia of the PNS: postganglionic cells send short fibers from ____ to target cells
Ganglia
In the PNS: preganglionic nerves release ____ to stimulate _____ receptors on postganglionic cells
ACh
Nicotinic
In the PNS: postganglionic cells release _____ to stimulate or inhibit target tissues via _______ receptors
ACh
Muscarinic
The “wandering” nerve is the?
Vagus nerve
What is the path of the vagus nerve?
Goes from brain to lungs to stomach
Nicotinic receptors are blocked by?
Curare
Muscarinic receptors are blocked by?
Atropine
Adrenergic receptors are blocked by?
Alpha blockers OR beta blockers
Most target organs have ____ ________ by sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers
Dual innervation
The effects of dual innervation are usually _____.
Antagonistic
The following organs only receive ________ innervation: adrenal medulla, skin, and most blood vessels.
Sympathetic
Muscarinic receptors and Adrenergic receptors are _________ receptors
G-protein-coupled
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release _____ to stimulate _________ receptors on postganglionic cells.
ACh
Nicotinic
What are the specific receptor subtypes of Muscarinic receptors?
M1-5
What are the specific receptor subtypes of Adrenergic receptors?
Alpha or beta
Synapses in passing
Synapses en passant
Parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons don’t have well defined synapses. Their axons wander through the target tissue. They have what kind of synapses?
En passant synapses
A chemical is an ______ if it blocks the action of the transmitter on the receptor
Antagonist
How do you know if nicotinic receptors are involved?
If you dropped nicotine on it, you’d get the same effect as ACh
Which is ligand gated? Nicotinic ACh receptors or Muscarinic ACh receptors?
Nicotinic ACh receptors
Two blood vessels: one receptor makes if dilate, the other makes it constrict. Which is the alpha receptor and which is the beta receptor?
Beta receptor dilates
Alpha receptor constricts
What does injection of cocaine do to the eye?
Increase NE
Dilation
What does injection of atropine do to the eye?
Blocks Muscarinic ACh receptors
Dilation
In lightness, circular muscle ______ and radial muscle _____.
Constricts
Relaxes
In darkness, circular muscle _______ and radial muscle ________
Relaxes
Constricts
PNS or SNS: which constricts the pupil and which dilates the pupil?
PNS constricts
SNS dilates
Sweat glands are controlled by what system?
SNS
Sweat glands are activated by what?
ACh
What is the name of the condition when disregulation of the Sympathetic nervous system is turned up too much?
Hyperhydrosis
How can you cure Hyperhydrosis?
Block ACh
What is the name of the condition?: loss of sympathetic innervation of the eye and face on one side
Horner’s syndrome
The “bad side” of a Horner’s syndrome patient has no SNS so the pupil on that side is constricted or dilated?
Constricted
Organo phosphates block what?
Degradation of ACh
How do you treat organophosphate poisoning?
Use Muscarinic antagonist atropine
What two things control the autonomic nervous system?
Hypothalamus
Brain stem
To maintain homeostasis, hypothalamus uses what two control mechanisms?
- Set point
2. Feedback loops
What is the core body temp?
37 C
During a fever what changes?
The set point (it goes up)
What’s an example of peripheral temperature sensors?
Skin
Heat dissipation represents what thermoregulatory site of integration?
Preoptic area(COLD)
Heat conservation represents what thermoregulatory site of integration?
Posterior area(HOT)
The preoptic area stimulates what?
Panting, sweating
The posterior area stimulates what?
Shivering
Hot flashes: lack of estrogen causes occasional what?
Lowering of set point
Secretion of thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) to increase thyroid hormone (TH) to increase ____?
Metabolism
LPS induces synthesis and release of pro inflammatory _______ from activated immune system cells.
Cytokines
If you block _____ you don’t get a fever!
COX2
Thermoregulation uses both ______ and ______ sensors
Peripheral & central
Infection causes “sickness” by INDIRECTLY affecting the hypothalamus through what two types of signaling?
Humoral
Nervous
Cytokines and prostaglandins signal the presence of ______?
Infection
_______ stimulate the apex of the basilar membrane; while _______ stimulates it’s base. _________ is encoded by the frequency of action potential firing of the auditory nerve.
Low pitch sound waves
High pitch sound waves
Volume
The bending of tufts of _______ that project out of a hair cell and into endolymph changes the probability that ion channels will open and close. The direction that these tufts bend will result in action potential frequency __________.
Stereocilia
Increases or decreases
_______ generates speech via projections to the motor cortex and ______ extracts meaning from words and integrates words with vision.
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
The ________ is where there is a lack of photoreceptors in the eye because all of the blood vessels and axons of the eye have to exit somewhere. This causes you to have a _______ in your vision.
Optic disc
Blind spot
In the light, a rod cell will ________ of neurotransmitters on a _________; which will them release transmitters on the next cell in the series of cells in the retina.
Decrease release
Bipolar cell
A bar of light is shining on both the center area and the surround area of an off-center ganglion cell. What would you expect to happen to this cells action potential firing rate?
The cell’s action potential should fire at a steady rate
_______ are slowly adapting mechanoreceptors with small receptive fields and _________ are rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors with large receptive fields.
Merkel’s disk
Pacinian corpuscle
Endolymph has a high concentration of _____; which _______ a hair cell when it rushes in.
K+
Depolarizes
Collectively, the receptive fields of one dorsal root ganglia are called:
Dermatome
A photon is passing through a stack of membranous disks in a rod’s outer segment and makes contact with a rhodopsin molecule. Photo dissociation occurs and retinal is converted to ________. This ultimately leads to ____ of the Na+ channels of the rod.
All-trans-retinal
Closing
When an outbreak of the _______ virus occurs! you can identify and map specific Dermatomes in the human body. This occurs because such a virus ______.
Herpes zoster
Remains dormant in nerves of the DRG until an outbreak
After sound waves move through the external auditory meatus and vibrate the tympanic membrane, three auditory ossicles transmits this sound to the cochlea. What is the last auditory ossicle in this series and what is the part of the cochlea that it DIRECTLY interacts with?
Stapes
Oval window
A stimulus is applied to a receptor of a neuron. There is a rapid increase in the frequency of action potentials in this neuron, followed by a quick reduction of the frequency of these action potentials while the stimulus is still present at the receptor. This is also known as fast-adaption. What kind of receptor am I referring to?
Phasic receptor
_______ in the fovea converge onto each bipolar cells (and ultimately ganglion cells); which is why we see ______ in the center of our field of vision.
Single cones
Much detail
What is the term for the rate of firing proportional to stimulus strength?
Neural response
The range of the stimulus or the area covered by the stimulus that causes a sensory neuron to respond?
Receptive field
Receptors that respond to mechanical pressure or touch on the surface of the body
Mechanoreceptors
What are the two forms of firing in somatosensation?
Phasic receptor (fast-adapting) Tonic receptor (slow-adapting)
What are the 4 types of mechanoreceptors?
Messner corpuscle
Merkel discs
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini endings
Which mechanoreceptors are near the surface of the skin?
Meissner corpuscle & merkel discs
Which mechanoreceptors are deep in the skin?
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini endings
Which mechanoreceptors are rapidly adapting (Phasic response) and which are slowly adapting (tonic response)?
Rapidly adapting - Meissner & Pacinian
Slowly adapting - merkel & Ruffini
_______ map to specific area on the body
Receptive fields
_______ of receptive fields varies across the body
Density
_________ maps out receptive field density
Two-touch discrimination
______ determines density of receptive fields.
Two-point touch
Each somatosensory neuron has a single small ___________.
Receptive field
Multiple somatosensory neurons are gathered into a single ________.
Spinal nerve
Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are gathered in _________.
Dorsal root ganglia
Sensory afferents enter the _______ of the sonal cord
Dorsal horn
Somatosensory nerves send projects to _______ side of the cerebral cortex
Contralateral
Ability of identify the 3D shape of an object
Stereopsis
What is important for speech?
Tactile sensations
What is the last line of defense?
Lips and tongue
Being able to respond really well to a playing cars edge down horizontally describes what?
Feature extraction
What are the receptor cells for audition and vestibular system?
Hair cells
In the vestibular apparatus, what two things detect linear acceleration?
Utricle & saccule
In vestibular apparatus: what detects rotational acceleration?
Semicircular canals
What detects sound waves?
Cochlea
The inner ear is connected by ducts filled with what?
Endolymph
Endolymph is high in what element?
Potassium
Tufted projections that stick into endolymph, and gelatinous tectoral membranes and bend with vibration?
Stereocilia
Bending of Stereocilia opens what kind of channels?
K+ channels
The tallest cilia is called what?
Kinocilium
When the Stereocilia are bent _______ the Kinocilium then the hair cells release more transmitter/get more depolarized
Towards
If the hair cells release less neurotransmitter then what way are they bent?
Away from the Kinocilium
To maintain balance and maintenance of gaze and posture describes what system?
Vestibular system
Utricle detects linear acceleration using _____ as inertial mass to detect gravity and stopping/starting during linear motion
Otoliths
____________ detect rotational acceleration in each of 3 planes.
Semicircular canals
You need 2 out of 3 of these inputs to maintain your balance, what are the 3?
Inner ear, vision, propioception
What detects linear acceleration?
Utricle
What detects rotational acceleration?
Semicircular canals
Each semicircular canal has it’s own _____, which stretches across the diameter of the canal.
Cupula
Low frequency sound vibrates the ____ of cochlea.
Apex
High frequency sound vibrates _____ of cochlea.
Base
What are the three small bones in the cochlea starting with the first one and ending with the one that goes to the oval window?
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Describe the vibrations of the basilar membrane?
Vibrations of oval window —-> vibrations in endolymph —> vibration of basilar membrane
The basilar membrane stretches across the length of what?
Cochlea
Hair cells are tuned by their position in _______
Cochlea
Hair cells at the _____ tend to die off sooner as you age.
Base
What is the term for the example of sound integration with visual information to change perception of syllable?
McGurk Effect
If you damage wernicke’s area what will happen?
You won’t be able to understand speech, but you can talk
If you damage Broca’s area what will happen?
You will be able to understand what’s being said but you won’t be able to talk
Which area of the eye has the highest density of photoreceptors?
Fovea
Photoreceptor cells synapse onto _____ cells.
Bipolar
_____ cells synapse onto ganglian cells in the retina
Bipolar
_____ cells project to brain via optic nerve
Ganglion
In fovea, ____ photoreceptor(s) transmits to ___ ganglion cell(s)
One ; one
In periphery, _____ photoreceptor(s) transmit to ____ ganglion cell(s)
Multiple ; one
The fovea has the highest density of _____.
Cones
Rods contain light-sensitive photopigment protein _______
Rhodopsin
Cones contain the photopigment _______
Photopsin
Photopsins are either ____, _____, or ______.
S (short blue)
M (medium green)
L (long red)
___ & ___ pigment genes are next to each other on X chromosomes.
L & M
Loss of ___ or ___ gene leads to X-linked red-green color blindness
L, M
_____ detects general luminance for pupillary reflex & entrain circadian rhythms
Melanopsin
Rod Photoreceptors have what kind of channels on their plasma membrane?
cGMP-gated Na+ channels
In the dark, cGMP levels are ____
High
Retinal is what vitamin?
Vitamin A
Light activates ______ in the disk membranes by alternating configuration of retinal
Rhodopsin
Rhodopsin is what kind of receptor?
G-protein coupled receptor
In the dark, cGMP-gated Na+ channels are ___
OPEN
Photoreceptor cells are activated in dark or light?
Dark
11-cis-retinal occurs in the dark or light?
Dark
All-trans retinal occurs in the light or dark?
Light
Photoreceptors cells are couples to ganglion cells via _____ cells
Bipolar
Input from bipolar cells is modulated by _____ cells
Horizontal cells
Receptive field of ganglion cell is based on what two things?
- Special location
2. Contrast
What is the specific spot in the visual field as it is projected onto the retina at the back of the eye?
Spatial location
Contrast allows ganglion cells to respond well to ________ in the visual field.
High contract edges
What are the two types of ganglion cell receptive fields?
On-center field
Off-center fields
Optic nerves meet, enter the brain, and cross at the ____.
Optic chasm
After optic chasm, the nerve fibers are called the _______
Optic tract
If you have a small lesion (dot) in your left eye retina, what does your visual field look like?
A spot appears in the shared right visual field
If you have a transection of the left optic nerve, what will your visual field look like?
Everything unique to the left eye is black
If you have a transection of the left optic tract, what will your visual field look like?
Complete blackness of both the shared right visual field and the unique visual field
What would happen to the visual field if you had a transection of the optic chasm?
Everything unique to the left eye is black, everything unique to the right eye is black. The shared visual field is okay
Simple or complex cells? Respond to orientation of stimulus at a specific spot in visual field; built up from input of ganglion cells
Simple cells
Simple or complex cells? Respond to orientation and direction of movement anywhere in the field; built up from input of simple cells
Complex cells
What is the dorsal pathway?
Visual cortex —–> parietal cortex
“Where” info describes which pathway?
Dorsal
What would happen if you got a lesion in the dorsal pathway?
You couldn’t pick up objects
Describe the ventral pathway
Visual cortex —-> temporal lobe
What pathway asks “what” info
Ventral pathway
What would happen if there was a lesion in the ventral pathway?
You couldn’t recognize or describe objects and orientations, but visually guided motor responses okay
For the circles: a person with ventral lesion would see what?
Same size circles
For the circles: a normal dorsal pathway sees what?
Same sizes
For the circles: a person with normal ventral pathway would see what?
Two different sizes
