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Eco > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Spatial structure

A

The pattern of density and spacing of individuals in a popuation

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2
Q

Niche

A

the range of abiotic and biotic conditions in which a species can persist

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3
Q

What are the two types of niche

A

fundamental niche

realized niche

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4
Q

fundamental niche

A

the range of abiotic conditions under which a species can persist

(allow a pop to survive, grow, and reproduce)

-temp, humidity

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5
Q

realized niche

A

The range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species can presist

-determines the geographic range of a species

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6
Q

geographic range

A

a measure of the total area covered by a pop.

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7
Q

fundamental and realized niche on a graph

A

Fundamental- includes all evevations

realized- includes high elevation only

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8
Q

what are the limits for the barnicles from spreading down?

A

fundemental niche

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9
Q

could the realized niche ever be larger than the fundamental niche

A

Yes! for ex the presence of a mutualist can allow a species to survive abiotic conditions that it couldn’t handle on its own

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10
Q

The realized niche determines the geographic range of species… HOW

A

places where abiotic and biotic condictions are within the range in which the species can persist

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11
Q

Ecological niche models

A

The process of determining the suitable habitat conditions for a species

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12
Q

2 reasons why a species might be absent from a location that an ecological niche model predicted to be suitable: why it might be wrong

A

-site really is suitable, but the species can’t get there (barrier, too far, not enough of them there)

-missing an important abiotic or biotic factor (presence of competitors)

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13
Q

ecological envelope

A

the range of ecological conditions that are predicted to be suitable for a species

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14
Q

endemic

A

species that live only in a small localized region, often isolated

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15
Q

cosmopolitan

A

species with very large geogrephic ranges that can span several continents

(huge geographic ranges)

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16
Q

characteristics of population distributions

A

geographic range

abundance

density

dispersion

dispersal

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17
Q

abundance

A

total number of individuals

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18
Q

density

A

number of individuals/ unit of an area or volume

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19
Q

dispersion

A

the spacing of individuals

-clustered

-evenly spaced

-random

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20
Q

the three types of dispertion

A

clustered

evenly spaced

random

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21
Q

clustered dispersion

A

a pattern of pop dispersion in which individuals are aggregated in discrete groups

resources are clusterd

clonal reproduction

social groups

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22
Q

evenly spaced dispersion

A

a pattern of dispersion of a pop in which each individual maintains a uniform distance between itself and its neighbours

competition

defending territores

chemicals

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23
Q

random dispersion

A

a pattern of dispersion of a pop in which the position f each individual is independent of the position of other individuals in the pop

-wind=random for seeds

-not very common in nature

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24
Q

dispersal

A

the movement of individuals from one area to another for good

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25
Q

cenus

A

counting every individual in pop

-cant usual do so we take a sample

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26
Q

survey

A

counting a subset of a pop

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27
Q

types of samples

A

area/volume based
-quadrant

line-transect

mark-recapture

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28
Q

area- and- volume based surveys

A

surveys that define the boundaries of an area or volume and the count all of the individauls in the space

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29
Q

line-transect surveys

A

surveys that count the number of individuals observed as one moves along a line

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30
Q

mark-recapture surveys

A

a method of population estimation in which researchers capture and mark a subset of a pop from an area, return it to the area, and then capture a second sample of the pop after some time has passed

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31
Q

which of the following pop would be best estimated by an area-based survey?

A

flowers in a field

-they are relatively immobile

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32
Q

dispersal limitation

A

the absence of a pop from suitable habitat because of barriers to dispersal

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33
Q

one way to remove dispersal barriers?

A

corridors

-removed by humans moving them ourselves

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34
Q

lifetime dispersal distance

A

the average distance an individual moves from where it was hatched or born to where it reproduces

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35
Q

metapopulation

A

a bunch of subpopulations more or less linked by dispersal

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36
Q

three main metapopulation models

A

1- basic

2- source-sink

3- landscape

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37
Q

habitat corridors

A

a strip of favourable habitat located between two large patches of habitat that facilitates dispersal

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38
Q

ideal free distribution

A

when individuals distribute themselves among different habitats in a way that allows them to have the same per capita benefit

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39
Q

subpopulations

A

when a larger pop is broken up into smaller groups that live is isolated patches

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40
Q

basic metapopulation model

A

describes a scenario in which there are patches of suitable habitat embedded within a matrix of unsuitable habitat

-patches are equally suitable

-matrix is not suitable

-% of patches occupied is determined by rates of colonization and extinction

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41
Q

what is matrix?

A

unsuitable habitat

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42
Q

the source-sink metapop model:

A

pop model that builds upon the basic metapop model and accounts for the fact that not all patches are sutiable habitat are of equal quality

-lower quality patches are “sinks”

-higher quality patches are “sources”

-source patches provide individuals that disperse into the sink patches - if it didn’t then sub populations in sink patches would go extinct

-pop in sink patches have lower reproduction

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43
Q

sink subpopulations

A

in low-quality habitats, sub pop that relay on outside dispersers to maintain the subpop within the metapop

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44
Q

landscape metapop model

A

considers both differences in the quality of the suitable patches and the quality of the surrounding matrix

-some patches are more suitable than others

-matrix can also be more or less suitable or more or less easy for the species to disperse through

-more realistic but also more complicated

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45
Q

Why do populations go over their carrying capacity in real life?

A

Delayed response to reduced per capita resources

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46
Q

what causes delays in density dependence?

A

when density dependence is a pop density in the past, not currently

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47
Q

Demongraphy

A

study of populations

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48
Q

Growth rate

A

in a pop, the number of new individuals that are produced in a given amount of time minus the number of individuals that die

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49
Q

geometric growth model:

A

used for species that reproduce all at once, one time/ year

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50
Q

intrinsic growth model

A

r

the highest possible per capita growth rate for a pop

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51
Q

exponential growth model

A

a model of pop growth in which the pop. increases continously at an exponential rate

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52
Q

j-shaped curve

A

the shape of exponentail growth when graphed

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53
Q

doubling time

A

the time required for a pop to double in size

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54
Q

difference between geometric and exponential growth models

A

the describe the same thing, but geometric pop growth in discrete steps

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55
Q

No pop. can keep growing exponentially

A

-limits to pop growth can be density independent or density dependent

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56
Q

density independent

A

factors that limit pop size regardless of the pops density

usually caused by things like weather, storms,fires ect.

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57
Q

density dependent

A

factors that affect pop size in relation to the pop’s density

-can be negative or positive

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58
Q

negative density dependence

A

when the rate of population growth decreases as pop density increases

-higher pop, less food, so growth rate goes down

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59
Q

positive density dependence

A

when the rate of pop growth increases as pop density increases

-lower pop, harder to find mates, growth rate goes down

-also known as inverse density dependence or the allee effect

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60
Q

can populations be regulated by both positive and negative density-dependent factors?

A

Yes!

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61
Q

self-thinning curve

A

a relationship that shows how decreases in pop density over time lead to increases in the size of each individual in the pop

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62
Q

logistic growth model

A

-more realistic than expoential

-pop have limits

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63
Q

carrying capacity (K)

A

The max pop. size that can be supported by the environment

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64
Q

s-shaped curve

A

the shape of the curve when a pop. is graphed over time using the logistic growth model

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65
Q

inflection point

A

the point on sigmoidal growth curve at which the pop achieves its highest growth rate

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66
Q

life tables

A

display class-specific survival and fecundity data

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67
Q

age structure

A

in a pop, the proportion of individuals that occurs in different age classes

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68
Q

what are the two types of life tables?

A

Cohort

Static

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69
Q

cohort life tables

A

-follow a group of individuals all born at the same time until all of them die

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70
Q

static life tables

A

quantify fecundity and/or survival of all individuals (all ages) in a single time interval

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71
Q

stable age distribution

A

when the age structure of a pop does not change over time

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72
Q

generation time (T)

A

the average time between the birth of an individual and the birth of its offspring

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73
Q

Cons to cohort tables

A

low rates of survival/fedundity could be due to ALL individuals in that class experiencing the same environmental conditions

-have to wait a long time for the data

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74
Q

static pro and cons

A

pro:

track survival of each group at one time

all age classes experience the same environmental condition

dont have to wait decades/centuries for data to die out

cons:

need to measure age accurately

only represents birth/fecundity rates given environmental conditions of sampling time frame

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75
Q

What causes delays in density dependence?

A

time delay in developmental stages

-food abundance in moose determines the number of calves that will be born in the spring

-ability to store resources and use those stages when resources become scarce

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76
Q

overshoot

A

when a pop grows beyond its carrying capacity

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77
Q

die-off

A

a substantial decline in density that typically goes well below the carrying capacity

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78
Q

population cycles

A

regular oscillation of a pop over a longer period of time

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79
Q

damped oscillations

A

the pop initially oscillates but the magnitude of the oscillations declines over time

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80
Q

stable limit cycle

A

the pop continues to exhibit large oscillations over time

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81
Q

Deterministic models

A

do not account for random variation in pop growth rate

in real life there is lots of random variation

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82
Q

stochastic models

A

incorporate random variation in pop growth models

83
Q

demographic stochasticity

A

variation in birth rates and death rates due to random changes differences among individuals

84
Q

environmental stochasticity

A

variation in birth rates and death rates due to random changes in the environmental conditions

85
Q

What causes stochastic model variation?

A

demographic stochasticity

and

environmental stochasticity

86
Q

Why are smaller populations more vulnerable to extinction?

A

string of bad years can drive the pop. extinct faster in small pop than in large pop

87
Q

what are the 3 types of metapop

A

basic

source-sink

landscape - most realistic

88
Q

habitat fragmentation

A

the process of breaking up large habitats into a number of smaller habitats

89
Q

I you were trying to save an endangered species that lived in a metapopulation, how might you try to increase the proportion of occupied patches?

A
  • increase C
    -corridors

-decrease e
-improve the habitat by reducing predator by increasing resources

90
Q

how synchronized the sub-pops are depends on-

A

how much dispersal is going on between them

91
Q

proportion of occupied patches can be approx the same even though-

A

patches are occupied can change

92
Q

patches in real life

A

-different sizes and different quality

-are differemt distances from each other

-matrix not completely inhospitable

93
Q

the number of individuals in a patch (sub pop) depends on

A

-distance from other patches

-size of patch

94
Q

rescue effect

A

when individuals dispersering to a patch from another patch prevents that subpop from going extinct

95
Q

Why would a little patch have so many butterflies

A

really close to other patches or close to 1 big patch

small patch is a “sink”

96
Q

What are the two types of predators

A

mesopredator

top predator

97
Q

mesopredator

A

relatively small carnivores that consume herbivores (weasal, cat)

98
Q

top predators

A

predators that typically consume both herbivores and mesopredators (lions, sharks, wolves)

99
Q

mesopredator expansion

A

when humans kill top predators, mesopredators expand

100
Q

lotka-volterrea model

A

a mathematical model of predator-prey interactions

101
Q

what is the purpose of lotka-volterra model?

A

to explain mathematically why and how predator and prey pop. cycle in relation to each other

102
Q

Equilibrium isocline

A

the pop size of one species that causes the pop of another species to be stable

also known as zero growth isocline

103
Q

What is a functional response

A

the relationship between prey density and an individual predators rate of eating them

change in the rate of prey consumption with change in density of prey (more prey = more for each predator)

104
Q

how many functional responses are there?

A

3

105
Q

type 1 functional response

A

predators eats more and more until predator reaches satiation

106
Q

type 2 functional response

A

number of prey consumed per predator slows gradually and then plateaus
-due to handling time (can only eat some parts of the food)

107
Q

type 3 functional response

A

low rates of consumption at low prey density (prey hard to find, hiding, poor search image, prey switching), then increases quickly, then slows gradually

108
Q

joint pop trajectory

A

the simultanous trajectory of predator and prey pop.

109
Q

joint equilibrium point

A

the point at which the equilibrium isoclines for predator and prey pop cross

110
Q

search image

A

a learned mental image that helps the predator locate and capture food

111
Q

numerical response

A

a change in number of predators in response to change in prey density

-pop growth

-movement

112
Q

what are the defences against predation and herbivory

A

behavioural

crypsis

structural

chemical

tolerance to herbivory

113
Q

behavioural defence

A

alarm calling, running away, reduced activity

114
Q

crypsis defence

A

camoflage to blend better with background

115
Q

structural defence

A

quills on a pourcupine, spines or prickles on plants

116
Q

chemical defence

A

toxins, smelly chemicals

117
Q

tolerance to herbivory

A

dropping a tail

118
Q

warning colouration

A

colours and patterns on bugs means distastefulness

also known as aposematism

119
Q

batesian mimicry

A

when palatable species evolve warning colouration that resembles unpalatable species evolve a similar pattern of warning colouration

120
Q

mullerian mimicry

A

when several unpalatable species evolve a similar pattern of warning colouration

121
Q

carotenoids

A

chemicals which make ladybugs red in colour

122
Q

alkaloids

A

chemicals that make ladybugs bitter

less food = less production of defence chemicals

123
Q

coevolution

A

when 2 or more species affect each others evolution

124
Q

half of all species on earth are what?

A

parasites

125
Q

what is a parasite?

A

an organism that gets its energy from living in or on another organism and cause harm to that organism by doing so

126
Q

How are parasites different from predators

A

they are smaller than their hosts

usually dont kill their hosts

usually live in/on one individual

127
Q

how do hosts deal?

A

infection resistance

infection tolerance

128
Q

infection resistance

A

ability of a host to prevent an infection from occurring
-immune system

129
Q

infection tolerance

A

ability of a host to minimize the harm that an infection can cause

130
Q

parasite load

A

the number of parasites of a given species that an individual host can harbour

131
Q

ectoparasite

A

a parasite that lives on the outside of an organism

132
Q

what are the two types of parasites

A

endoparasites

ectoparasites

133
Q

endoparasites

A

live inside the host

134
Q

ectoparasite pros and cons

A

pros:

low exposure to immune system

easier to move from host to host

cons:

high exposure to environment

can be more difficult to feed (peirce through skin)

135
Q

endoparasite pros and cons

A

pros:

protection from environment and enemies

easy to feed

cons:

exposed to the immune system

harder to move from host to host

136
Q

types of endoparasites

A

viruses

prions

protozoans

bacteria

fungi

helminths

137
Q

viruses

A

small pox, covid

138
Q

prions

A

mad cow disease, chronic wasting disease

139
Q

protozoans

A

malaria

140
Q

bacteria

A

STDs, plague

141
Q

fungi

A

white nose syndrome in bats

142
Q

helminths

A

hookworms, lungworms

143
Q

emerging infectious disease

A

a disease that is newly discovered or has been rare and then suddenly increases in occurrence

144
Q

Why are eurpean bats not dying from white nose

A

-fungus is not native to north america but is native to europe so bats there have evolved either tolerance or resistance

or the fungus in north america has mutated to become more lethal

145
Q

horizontal transmission

A

when a parasite moves between individuals other than parents to their offspring

146
Q

vector

A

an organism that a parasite uses to disperse from one host to another

mosquitos = vectors for malaria

147
Q

vertical transmission

A

when a parasite is transmitted from parent to its offspring

148
Q

reservoir species

A

species that can carry a parasite but do not succumb to the disease that the parasite causes in other species

sars- bats can carry but dont have it

149
Q

how can parasite avoid extinction if its host goes extinct?

A

-evolve ability to infect a new host

-live in the environment or in a reservoir species until the host pop. comes back

150
Q

S-I-R

A

susceptible

infected

resistant

151
Q

SIR model

A

simpilest model of infectious disease transmission that incorporates immunity

152
Q

what would make R0 smaller?

A

-increase g
-antivirals

-decrease B
-isolation, wash hands, covid stuff

-decrease S
-vaccine

153
Q

What is s in R0 = s x b/g

A

number of susceptible individuals

154
Q

what is b in R0 = s x b/g

A

rate of transmission

155
Q

what is g in R0 = s x b/g

A

rate of recovery

156
Q

is R0 > 1

A

epidemic

157
Q

if R0 < 1

A

infection dies out

158
Q

What is competition

A

a negative interaction between two species that depend on the same limiting resource to survive, grow, and reproduce

159
Q

intraspecific competition

A

competition among indivuduals of same species

160
Q

interspecific competition

A

competition among individuals of different species

161
Q

what is a resource?

A

things that can be used up/ consumed

“there isnt enough____ for all of us!”

162
Q

renewable resources

A

resources that are constantly regenerated

163
Q

nonrenewable resources

A

resources that are not regenerated

164
Q

liebigs law of the minimum

A

law stating that a pop. increases until the supply of most limiting resource prevents it from increasing further

165
Q

gause

A

famous experiments with protists

166
Q

two species cannot coexist indefinitely when they are both limited by the same resource

A

-two protist species that both consume bacteria

-two species of diatoms that both consume phosphorus

-two species of birds that both eat the same insect species

167
Q

Darwin predicted that more closely realted species would compete more intensely… why?

A

more closely related species would share similar traits, therefore consume similar resources (similar niche)

168
Q

How do we see closely related species living near each other without competitive exclusion

A

natural selection over time, favors slight difference in habitat/resources which prevents competitive exclusion

169
Q

competitive exclution principle

A

two species cannot coexist when they are both limited by the same resource

170
Q

competition coefficeints

A

varaibles that convert between the number of individuals of one species and the number of individuals of the other species

171
Q

purpose of the lotka-volterra competition models

A

to help us predict how the different carrying capacities (K) and different starting numbers (N) of the two species will influence how competition will turn out

172
Q

zero pop growth isoclines

A

combinations N1 and N2 where pop growth rate is 0

173
Q

Limitaion of simple 2-species competition model:

A

-based on 1 resource only (usually more than one resource)

  • two species are competing in isolation (usually more species around)

-does not account for changing abiotic conditions or predation or herbivory

174
Q

animals that move around and feed a lot are good competitors, but get eaten by predators more

A

-some plants are good competitors but more susceptible to herbivores

175
Q

exploitative competition

A

competition in which individuals consume and reduce a resource to a point that other individuals cannot survive

176
Q

interference competition

A

when competitors do not immediately consume resources but defend them

177
Q

allelopathy

A

a type of interference that occurs when organisms use chemicals to harm their competitors

178
Q

apparent competition

A

when 2 species negatively affect each other via an enemy (predator, parasite, herbivore)

179
Q

mutualism

A

a positive interaction between individuals of 2 species in which each species recieves benefits from the other

180
Q

predation/parasitoidism interaction

A

1 = +

2 = -

181
Q

parasitism interactions

A

1 = +

2 = -

182
Q

herbivory interactions

A

1 = +

2 = -

183
Q

competition interactions

A

1 = -

2 = -

184
Q

mutualism interactions

A

1 = +

2 = -

185
Q

commensalism interactions

A

1 = +

2 = 0

186
Q

ant on acacia tree mutualistic relationship

A

acacia provides food for ants

ants defend tree against herbivores

187
Q

how can we be sure that the acacia trees are getting a benefit?

A

an experiement!

188
Q

Generalist

A

a species that interacts (forms a mutualism) with many other species

189
Q

specialist

A

a species that forms a mutualism ONLY with one particular species (or a few closely related species)

190
Q

obligate mutualists

A

requires mutualsit partner to survive

191
Q

facultative mutualists

A

can live without their partner if necessary

192
Q

What do species get from mutualisms

A

resources
-nutrients, water, sugar, shelter

defence from predators

193
Q

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

A

a type of endomycorrhizal fungi that infects a tremendous number of plants including apple trees, peach trees

194
Q

ectomycorrhizal fungi

A

fungi characterized by hyphae that surrund the roots of plants and enter between root cells but rarely enter the cells

195
Q

termites and protozoans

A

they get resource

-protozoans gets lots of wood to break down (shelter)

-termites get products of wood digestion

196
Q

oxpecters and mammals

A

get defense

oxpeckers gets food (ticks)

mammals get ticks removed

197
Q

bats and plants

A

gets pollinator

bats get nector

plants get pollen spread

198
Q

ants and some plants

A

get seed dispersal!

ants get oil and protein rich elaisome

plant gets seed dispersed

199
Q

specialist mutualists could be more vulnerable to becoming endangered

A

big fruits only elephant can eat can only germinate after passing through elephant

-elephants are declining so tree is also declining

200
Q

endophytic fungi

A

fungi that live inside a plants tissues

201
Q

cheaters

A

-recieves benefit but provides nothing in return

-natural selection favours this cuz cheater gets fitness benefit with no cost

202
Q

example of when natural selection prevents cheating

A

plant can determine when fungus is not providing and release more sugars to the non cheating fungi when the fungi is seperated

203
Q
A

Eco (3 decks)

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