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Eco > chapter 1 > Flashcards

chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is ecology?

A

The scientific study of the natural environment and the relationships of organisms to eachother and their surroundings

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2
Q

What does oikos mean

A

-greek word for house

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3
Q

Population

A

a group of indivduals of the same speices living together in a certain area

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4
Q

community

A

all pop of species living together in an area

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5
Q

ecosystem

A

one or more comunities interacting with their non-living physical and chemical environments

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6
Q

What is an species?

A

a group of organisms that naturally interbreed with eachother and produce fertile offspring

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7
Q

what is an indidividual

A

a living being, most fundamental unit of eco

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8
Q

biosphere

A

all of the ecosystems on earth

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9
Q

Evolution

A

change in genetic compositon of a pop. over time

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10
Q

individual approach

A

the individuals morphology, physiology, and behaviour enable it to survive its environment

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11
Q

adaption

A

a characteristic of an organism that makes it wellsuited to its environment

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12
Q

population approach

A

variation over time and space in the number, density, and the composition of individuals

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13
Q

community approach

A

the diversity and relative abundances of different kinds of organisms living together in the same place

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14
Q

ecosystem approach

A

the storage and transfer ofi energy and matter, inlcuding the various chemical elements essential to life

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15
Q

biosphere approach

A

largest scale in the hierarchy of eco. systems. (movements of air and water)

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16
Q

natural selection

A

change in frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes

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17
Q

Could there be natural selection operating even
without interactions between species?

A

Yes, adaptions to non-living conditions ex, climate change

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18
Q

Phenotypes

A

colour, behaviour, ect

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19
Q

genotype

A

genes carried

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20
Q

fitness

A

the survivial and reproduction of an individual (purple caterpillers had low fitness)

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21
Q

what do eukaryotes have?

A

organelles

ex, autotrophs, heterotrophs, mixotrophs

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22
Q

law of conservation of matter

A

matter cannot be created or destroyed, can only change form

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23
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form

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24
Q

dynamic steady state

A

when the gains and losses of ecological systems are in balance

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25
Q

What are the types of species interactions

A

herbivore

predator

competition

mutualism

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26
Q

Producer

A

an organism that uses photosynthesis to convert solar energy into organic compounds or uses chemosynthesis to convert chemical energy into oganic compounds.

(autotroph)

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27
Q

consumer

A

an organism that obtains its energy from other organisms

(heterotroph)

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28
Q

mixotroph

A

organism that obtains its energy from more than one source

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29
Q

predator

A

an organism that kills and partially or entirely consumes another individual

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30
Q

Herbivore

A

consumes producers (plants/algae)

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31
Q

Competition

A

interaction with negative effects between 2 species
that depend on the same limiting resource to survive, grow, and reproduce

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32
Q

mutalism

A

an interaction between 2 species in which each species recieves benefits from the other

(bees and flowers)

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33
Q

parasitoid

A

an organism that lives within and consumes the tissues of a living host, eventually killing the host

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34
Q

parasite

A

an organism that lives in or on another organsim but rarely kills it

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35
Q

pathogen

A

a parasite that causes disease in its host

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36
Q

what is lichen an example of?

A

mutalism and symbiosis

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37
Q

symbiosis

A

2 different species living closely together, like hyphae and algal cells

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38
Q

commensalism

A

interaction between 2 species that live close and one species receives the benefit while the other has a cost or no benefit

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39
Q

habitat

A

the place, or physical setting, in which an organism lives

fish= stream

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40
Q

NICHE

A

The range of biotic and abiotic conditions that an organism can tolerate

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41
Q

NICHE principle

A

no 2 species can have exactly the same niche due to compeition

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42
Q

sacvenger

A

an organism that consumes dead animals

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43
Q

detritivore

A

an organism that feeds on dead organic matter and waste products that are collectively known as detritus

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44
Q

decomposer

A

organism that breaks down dead organic material into simpler elements and compounds that can be recycled through the ecosystem

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45
Q

How do we do eco

A

1: do natural history (go out and observe nature- why a big wont eat something

2:make a hypo -

3: make a prediction (IF/THEN)

4: design an experiment to test hypo

5: measure response and analyze results - was the prediction correct?

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46
Q

Why is it important to randomize?

A

prevent bias/ influence of unmeasured factors

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47
Q

mean

A

the average

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48
Q

variance

A

the spread of the data around the mean

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49
Q

What does it mean if a sample has greater variance?

A

it does not mean that the data are inaccurate or unreliable

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50
Q

what does it mean if there is an overlap?

A

means there is greater variance

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51
Q

natural experiments

A

experiments that rely on natural variation in the environment

ex; places with more trees have more plants then those without

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52
Q

manipulative experiment

A

a process by which the hypo is tested by alternating a factor

-50/100 forests were cut down and now we wait to see what happens

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53
Q

control

A

a manipulation that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest

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54
Q

experimental unit

A

the object to which we apply an experimental manipulation

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55
Q

replication

A

being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times

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56
Q

What is a gene

A

a region of DNA that codes for a particular protein

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57
Q

What is an allele?

A

different forms of a particular gene

(gene pool)

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58
Q

natural experiments pros and cons

A

pros:

more realistic

more ethical

less expensive

can study longterm

cons:
less control (underlying factors)

relay on varation available

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59
Q

manipulative experiments pros and cons

A

pros:

more control

more easily repeatable

cons:
expensive

have to wait

could be unethical

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60
Q

what are gene pools

A

all the different alleles from all individuals in a pop

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61
Q

Polygenic

A

when a single gene trait is affected by several genes

ex height

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62
Q

pleiotropy

A

when a single gene affects multiple traits

ex: frizzle gene in chickens make weird feathers but also makes them have fewer eggs and slower digestion

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63
Q

epistatsis

A

when the expression of one gene is controlled by another gene

1 gene = brown or black fur

2 gene = no colour (white fur)

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64
Q

heterozygous

A

when an individual has 2 different alleles of a particular gene

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65
Q

homozygous

A

when an indivual has 2 identical alleles of a particular gene

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66
Q

how do we get genetic variation?

A

1: sexual reproduction

2: mutation

3:recombination

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67
Q

mutation

A

random change in the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA

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68
Q

Recombination

A

exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes during meiosis

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69
Q

recipe for evolutionary change

A

we need genetic variation that leads to phenotype variation

selection or random processes

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70
Q

selection

A

process by which certain phenootypes are favoured to survive and reproduce over others

-natural or artifical

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71
Q

relationship between fitness and phenotype

A

can be used to predict what type of selection will occur

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72
Q

Strength of selection

A

the difference between the mean of the phenotype distribution before and after selection

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73
Q

heritability

A

the proportion of the phenotype that is controlled by genes

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74
Q

response to selection

A

strength of selection x heritability

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75
Q

Evolutionary change can also occur with-

A

genetic drift

bottleneck effect

founder effect

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76
Q

Genetic drift

A

changes in allele frequencies due to random variation in mating, mortality, fecundity and inheritance

-more common in small populations

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77
Q

bottleneck effects

A

a reduction of genetic diversity in a population due to a large reduction in population size

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78
Q

Founder effects

A

small number of individuals leave a large pop to colonize a new area and bring with them only a small amount of genetic variation

-higher rates of alleles that cause certain diseases

79
Q

microevolution

A

the evolution of populations (changes in gene frequencies over time)

80
Q

macroevolution

A

-evolution at higher levels (species)

-includes speciation

81
Q

speciation

A

the evolution of new species

82
Q

Phylogentic trees

A

show hypothesized patterns of relatedness among species or higher taxonomic groups

83
Q

types of speciation

A

allopatric and sympatric

84
Q

allopatric

A

evolution of new species through the process of geographic isolation

85
Q

sympatric

A

evolution of new species
WITHOUT geographic isolation

86
Q

industrail melanism

A

cause habitats to become darker due to pollution and individuals start pocessing darker phenotypes are favoured by selection

87
Q

polyploid

A

a species that contains three or more sets of chromosome

88
Q

Life history:

A

the schedule of an
organism’s growth, development, reproduction, and survival

89
Q

reproduction: ogranisms can differ in-

A

-time to reach sexual maturity

-fecudity

-parity

-parental investment

90
Q

what is the point of life?

A

-live, reproduce, and die

91
Q

fecundity

A

the number of offpring produced by an organism per reproductive episode

92
Q

parity

A

the number of reproductive episodes an organism experiences

93
Q

perental investment

A

the amount of time and energy given to an offspring by its parents

94
Q

longevity

A

the life span of an organism

(life expectancy)

95
Q

types of Growth:

A

determinate

indeterminate

96
Q

determinate

A

stop growing once reaching sexual maturity

-most birds and mammals

97
Q

inderteminate

A

keep growing even after reaching sexual maturity and starting to reproduce

98
Q

overall goal

A

to maximize fitness (survial and reproduction)

BUT there are trade-offs
one organism can’t produce lots of offspring AND large offspring AND give them lots of parental care AND grow fast AND live a long time

99
Q

Why not? trade offs for overall goal

A
  • physical constants
    size of uterus, cant birth an elephant

-genetic contrants
-plecotropy

-finate time, energy, nutrients

100
Q

principle of allocation

A

When resources are used for one body structure,
physiological function, or
behaviour, they cant also be used for something else

101
Q

life history strategies are related to…:

A

envirnomental conditions

102
Q

Consider a species with a fast potential growth rate, reproduction at a relatively
early age, allocation of a small proportion of net production to seeds, and reliance on vegetative spread. According to Grime’s classification of life history traits, this species fits the profile of a-

A

competitor

103
Q

Annuals

A

live 1 year (or less)

104
Q

perennials

A

live more than 1 year

105
Q

Which is more likely to be a ruderal, annual or perennial

A

annuals, everything done fast, then they die

106
Q

semiparity

A

when organisms reproduce only once during their life

107
Q

lteroparity

A

when organisms reproduce muiltple times during their life

108
Q

senescence

A

a gradual decrease in fecundity and an increase in the probability of mortality

109
Q

parental care

A

more babies, less care

110
Q

trade offs between # babies and parental care per baby

A

extra effort of feeding extra chicks = reduced survival for parents = lower fitness as they cant reproduce anymore if they are dead

111
Q

photoperiod

A

the amount of light that occurs each day

112
Q

trade-off between growth and reproduction

A

if life expectany is long
-grow first and get big, then have babies (bigger or more babies)

if life is short
-reproduce ASAP

113
Q

Environmental conditions can affect life history strategies. can be due to-

A

1) the availability of resources

2) presence or abundance of predators

114
Q

timing is important

A

organisms need to time their life history events to occur at the right time

  • need CUES to know when is the right time to: e.g. migrate, reproduce, hibernate, etc.
  • CUES could include things like: temperature, photoperiod

-birds lay eggs at a certain time so when they hatch there is plenty of food

115
Q

If birds are laying their eggs earlier in response to the
temp warming up earlier, why wouldn’t the caterpillars shift their life history earlier as well?

A

they dont use temperture as a cue for their life history timing

116
Q

sexual reproduction gametes

A

fusion of 2 haploid gametes

117
Q

asexual

A

no fusion of haploid gametes, DNA inherited from 1 parent only

118
Q

asexual types

A

-vegetative reproduction

-parthenogenesis

119
Q

vegitative reproduction

A

-offspring comes from non-sexual tissues

-exact clones

120
Q

parthenogenesis

A

embryoo produced without fertilization

-if meiosis occurs first- not clones

-if no meiosis- clones

121
Q

pros and cons for asexual reproduction

A

pros:

no cost for meiosis

dont have to find a mate

dont have to spend energy on sexual displays/mating rituals/ sexual organs

cons:

less genetic varability

harmful mutations are harder to get rid of (can be passed on)

122
Q

pros and cons for sexual reproduction

A

pros:

purging deleterious mutations

increased genetic variation
-increased ability to adapt to changing conditions
-parasites or predators

cons:

more energy for sexual organs, mating rituals

cost of meiosis

increase risk of predational herbivory (making noise to attract mates but also attracting predators)

123
Q

Red queen hypo

A

Sexual reproduction allows
hosts to evolve at a rate just
fast enough to match the rapid evolution of their parasites

124
Q

binary fission

A

reproduction throuigh duplication of genes followed by divition of cell into 2 identical cells

125
Q

Prediction: If the Red Queen Hypothesis is true, then…

A

asexual populatinos will have significantly higher parasite loads than sexual populations

126
Q

Different ways to do sexual
reproduction:

A

seperate sexes vs both sexes in one individual = hermaphrodite

127
Q

plants can be hermaphrodites in two different ways:

A

1: each flower has both male and female parts (perfect flowers)

2: one plant has some flowers that are male and some that are female

2/3 flowers are perfect

128
Q

Hermaphrodites can self-fertilize

A

female and male gametes from the same individual

  • potential problem:
    inbreeding depression:
129
Q

what is inbreeding depression

A

a decrease in fitness caused by mating, between close relatives

130
Q

how to prevent selfing (inbreeding)

A

1: male and females parts can mature at different times

2: self-incompatibilty

131
Q

simultaneous hermaphrodies

A

individuals that possess male and female reproductive functions at the same time

132
Q

seqyential hermaphrodites

A

individuals that possess male or femal reproductive function and then switch to possess the other function

133
Q

monoecious

A

plants that have seperate male and female flowers on the same individual

134
Q

dioecious

A

plants that contain either only male flowers or only female flowers on a single individual

135
Q

When do plants want to self fertilize (inbreed)

A

1: when resources are low or far cuz outcrossing flowers cost more energy to produce

2: when mates are hard to find (pop density is low)

136
Q

Sex determination

A

1:in mammals, birds, some others: inheritance of specific chromosomes

-male birds zz,
-female birds zw

(2) in some turtles, lizards, alligators: determined by the environment the egg is in

-phenotypic plasticity (egg with SAME genotype can turn out either male OR female)

137
Q

The degree of environmental sex determination can vary across environments

ex fish

A

bigger females = more eggs (= greater fitness)

IF growing season is LONG, females that hatch earlier can get really BIG (best for females)

IF growing season is SHORT – short time to grow, no matter when they hatch.
-no benefit, females or males

138
Q

In many populations of species with separate sexes, the ratio is 1:1.. why?

A

Frequency dependent selection: when the rarer phenotype in a population is favored by natural selection.

-if males are less common, newborn males have greater chance of mating cuz there is less males

139
Q

local mate competition

A

when competition for mates occurs in a very limited area and only few males are required to fertillze all of the females

140
Q

mating systems

A

the number of mates each
individual has, and the permanence of the relationship

141
Q

PROMISCUITY:

A

-leaving it to chance

males mate with many females, females mate with many males
-no lasting bond

142
Q

Polygamy

A

single individual of one sex forms a long-term socail bond with more than one individual of the opposite sex

143
Q

monogamy

A

usually (relatively) permanent

– favoured when males make important contributions to raising offspring

144
Q

selection

A

the process by which certain phenotypes are favoured to survive and reproduce over other phenotypes

145
Q

sexual selection
natural selection for sex-specific traits related to reproduction

A

-female choice
-life history difference
-conflicts between males

146
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

the difference in the phenotype between males and females of the same spieces

bigger females for eggs, smaller males cuz sperm is small

-spiders

147
Q

Male conflict

A

larger antlers = more likely
to win conflict = more likely to get to mate with females = selection for larger conflict in males

148
Q

examples of sexual selection

A

sexual dimorphism

male conflict

female choice

149
Q

female choice

A
  • females mate with males that have longer tails more often than they mate with males that have short tails
  • therefore, greater fitness for longer tailed males
  • therefore, sexual selection for longer and longer tails
150
Q

why do males prefer longer tails

A

indication of good health or genes

151
Q

What females are looking for:

A

Material benefits:

place to raise chicks, high quality territory, abundant food

Non-material benefits:

indicator of superior genes or health

152
Q

good gene hypo

A

females choose mates based on indicators of good
genes

153
Q

good health hypo

A

females choose mates based on indicators of good
health

154
Q

When would selection for longer and longer tails stop?

A

-when it lowers male fitness

-when genetic variation runs out

155
Q

polygyny

A

a mating system in which a male mates with more than one female

156
Q

polyandry

A

when a female mates with more than one male

157
Q

extra-pair copulations

A

when an individual that has a socail bond with a mate also breeds with other individuals

158
Q

mate guarding

A

a behaviour in which one partner prevents the other partner from doing extra-pair copulations

159
Q

primary sexual charcateristics

A

traits related to fertilization

160
Q

secondary sexual characteristics

A

traits related to differences between the sexes in terms of body size, ornaments, colour, and courtship

161
Q

runaway sexual selection

A

when selection for preference of a sexual trait and selection for that trait continue to reinforce each other

162
Q

the handicap principle

A

the greater the handicap an individual carries, the greater its ability must be to offset that handicap

163
Q

Why do organisms often live in groups? What are the benefits and costs of group living?

A

-help finding and killing food/prey
-easier to find mates

benefits:

increased survival
-defend against predators and watch for them

dilution effect
-reduced probability of predation for a single animal when in a group

164
Q

social behaviours

A

interactinos with members of ones own speices, including mates, offspring, other relatives, and unrelated individuals

165
Q

cost of living in a group

A

-competition for food and other resources

-greater risk of parasites and disease (easier to spread)

-big groups= easier to find

166
Q

what is a territory

A

an area defended by one or more individuals against the intrusion of others

  • can be transient (temporary) or permanent
167
Q

A male bird establishes his territory in an area with lots of food resources for his future chicks.

What kind of benefits does this provide for his mate?

A

Material benefits

168
Q

dilution effect

A

the reduced or diluted probability of predation to a single animal when it is in a group

169
Q

Lek

A

the location of an animal aggregation to put on display attract the opposite sex

170
Q

co-operation vs multualism

A

multualism is when 2 from 2 different species benefit eachother

co-operation= when 2 of the SAME species benefit eachother

171
Q

co-operation

A

when the donor and the recipient both experience increased fitness from an interaction

-lions work together to find and kill prey

172
Q

dominance hierachy

A

a socail ranking among individuals in a group, typically determined through contests such as fighting or other contests of strength or skill

173
Q

donor

A

the individual who directs a behaviour towards another individual as part of a socail interaction

174
Q

recipient

A

the individual who recives the behaviour of a donor in a social interaction

175
Q

selfishness

A

when the donor of a social behaviour experiences increased fitness and the recipent expereiences decreased fitness

-one lion steals all of the prey the pack killed

176
Q

spitefulness

A

when a social interaction reduces the fitness of both donor and recipeint

-none known for ex

177
Q

alturism

A

a socail inteaction that increases the fitness of recipient and decreases the fitness of the donor

-one bee works to tend the
Queen bee’s offspring, and
doesn’t have its own offspring

178
Q

How could altruism evolve?

A

fitness can be divided into DIRECT and INDIRECT fitness

fitness = survival and reproduction of an individual

higher fitness = pass on more of your genes

179
Q

Direct fitness

A

fitness gained from passing your genes on to your offspring

180
Q

indirect fitness (kin)

A

indirectly passing down some of your genes by helping your relatives raise their offspring (who share some of your genes)

181
Q

inclusive fitness

A

direct fitness + indirect fitness

182
Q

Coefficients of relatedness (r)

A

the probability of sharing the same copy of a gene

in diploid organisms, half of genes come from dad and half from mom therefore, r for mom and her offspring =0.5
r for full siblings = 0.5

183
Q

direct selection

A

selection that favours direct fitness

184
Q

indirect selection

A

selection that favours indirect fitness, also known as kin selection

185
Q

indirect fitness for math stuff

A

if the recipient is not related
to the donor, r = 0, and indirect fitness = 0

186
Q

For altruism to be favoured by evolution, need:

A

B x r > C

187
Q

eusocial

A

social animal in which individuals live in large groups with overlapping generatins, co-opperation in nest building and brood care, and reproduction dominance by one or a few individuals

-Ants, bees

188
Q

caste

A

individuals within a socail group sharing a specialized form of behaviour

189
Q

haplodiploid

A

a sex-determination syetem in which one sex is haploid and the other sex is diploid

190
Q

queen

A

the dom, egg-flying female in eusocial insect societies

191
Q

calc indirect fitness

A

b x r

192
Q

calc direct fitness

A

b x r x p

193
Q

to get inclusive fitness

A

direct + indirect

194
Q

Eusociality:

A

at least several adults living
together

  • overlapping generations
  • co-operation in nest building, taking care of young
  • only one or a few individuals reproduce – the rest are sterile
  • favoured by haplodiploid sex determination

Eco (3 decks)

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