Exam 2 Flashcards
How many modes of communication are there?
There are four
What are the 4 modes of communication?
- language
- facial expression
- body language
- voice
What is included in the voice mode of communication?
Pitch and hesitation
What is psycholinguistics?
The study of the factors that allow people to acquire, use, and understand language; communicate information
What did the linguist Deborah Tannen (1991) contribute to the gender differences in language use?
- Different cultures hypothesis - men and women communicated as if they were from two different cultures
- Different goals in communication
What were the different goals in communication between women and men?
Women: conversation maintenance (affiliation)
- affiliated goals
Men: conversation dominance
- dominate goals
What are tag questions?
A short phrase is added to a sentence, which turns it into a question
- “It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?”
What is an example of disclaimers?
“I may be wrong, but…”
What is an example of hedges?
And what is the d value?
Weakens or softens a statement
- “sort of”
- “This is kind of like…”
d= -015
What is an example of intensifers?
And what is the d value?
“Very”, “really”
d= -0.38
What is tentativeness?
Using language such as “sort of” to soften their language
Who did the meta-analysis for tentativeness?
Leaper and Robnett
2011
What did the meta-analysis by Leaper and Robnett for tentativeness say?
That they are context moderates gender differences in tentativeness
- seeing how people act while communicating in public
- Lab studies: d= -0.28
- Naturalistic studies: d= -0.09
What is a form of interruption in language use?
Interjecting
True or False: Women interrupt men more than men interrupt women
False.
Men interrupt women more than women interrupt men
What are the meaning of interruptions?
- Express power, control
- Express disagreement
- Change the subject
- Request clarification
- Express agreement or support
What are the dominating forms of interrupting?
- Express power, control
- Express disagreement
- Change the subject
What are the gender differences in language use in terms of children’s speech?
Girls use more affiliative speech (e.g., praise or agreement) (adopting extreme versions of stereotype) than boys
d= 0.26
Boys use more assertive speech (e.g., criticisms) than girls
d= 0.10
Do gender differences in language use shrink in adulthood?
Yes gender differences do shrink in adulthood
d= -0.12
What are the applications of verbal communication?
Persuade, solve problems, and connect with people
Communicate therapy
What are female-linked topics?
- More references to relationships (e.g., sister, friend, boyfriend)
- More references to emotions (e.g., use of terms and use of emotions)
What are male-linked topics?
- More swearing, references to sports and occupations
- Lacked reference to emotions or positive social relationships
What is the gender stereotype about emotionality?
Cross-culturally, women are stereotyped as the emotional sex
What is the gender stereotype about specific emotions?
Some emotions are stereotyped as “female”, others as “male”
What are female emotions associated as?
Female emotions both positive and negative
What are male emotions associated with?
Males emotions are associated with dominance
What are the politics of emotion?
- Regulate behavior
- Emotional control
- Leadership
What is the experience of emotion theory?
Men and women don’t differ in experience of emotion
What is the expression of emotion theory?
Men and women differ greatly in expression of emotion
What are display rules?
Culture’s rules for which emotions can be expressed or displayed and by whom
What are the ways to measure emotion?
- Physiological
- Subjective experience (self-report)
- Observations of emotional expression
How do you measure emotion physiologically?
- E.g., heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductance
- Neuroimaging techniques (fMRI)
How do you measure observations of emotional expression?
- Direct observation by a perceiver
- Measures of facial muscle activation through EMG
What did John Cacioppo and Richard Petty use?
1997
Used facial EMG to identify muscle activity associated with attitudes
- Electrodes on the face to pick up muscle activity
What are messages that Richard Petty agreed with?
Muscles in cheek is associated with happiness
What are messages that Richard Petty disagreed with?
Muscles in forehead associated with sadness and distress
What are the two types of expressions?
Externalizers and Internalizers
Whar are the gender differences in emotional experience and expression according to Kring and Gordon’s 1998 research?
- Women were more facially expressive than men
- But, patterns of gender differences depended on the aspect of emotion being measured
- Women were externalizers (facially expressive) measured by videos
- Men were internalizers (physiologically reactive)
Were women or men more expressive across films?
Women were more expressive than men across all films
What did women show more of compared to men in regards to emotions on the films?
- Women showed more positive and negative emotional expressions
- Men showed more skin conductance (sweating) in response to fear and anger related films
What are the gender differences in emotional experience and expression?
- Girls and women use more emotional words and talk more about their emotions than boys and men do
- Women report greater emotional intensity than men
- By elementary school, girls are better than boys at controlling their emotions and displaying socially appropriate emotions
What are automatic/unconscious social influences?
Mimicry and the chameleon effect
What is mimicry?
Copying the behavior, language, and physical appearance of others
What is the chameleon effect or behavioral effect?
- Tendency to adopt the postures, gestures and mannerisms of interaction partners
- Trained confederates to repeat behaviors (rub face or shake leg)
- Observed behavior of participants
What is the evolutionary role of mimicry?
Communication and survival
- Infants mimic within 72 hours of birth
- 9-month olds: mimic abstract emotions (e.g., sadness, joy)
What do animals mimic?
Vocal, behavioral
What is the social role of mimicry?
It fosters affiliation, rapport, and liking
What happens when confederates mimic the behavior of interaction partners?
- Greater liking of confederates
- Smoother interaction
What should you do if you are feeling ostracized from a group?
Mimic to increase belonging
What do men prefer for interpersonal distance?
men prefer larger interpersonal distance
What are the effects of gender, gender role identification, and sexual orientation on interpersonal distance?
There are effects of interpersonal distance seen with gender
There are minimal effects of interpersonal distance seen by sexual orientation
Why do we smile?
- To communicate friendliness?
- To communicate subservience?
- Part of female role
What are the gender differences in smiling within a lifespan?
- Infancy and childhood: nonexistent d= -0.01
- In adolescence, the gender difference grows to d= -0.56
- Middle adulthood: d= -0.30
- Other adulthood: d= -0.11
What does eye contact reflect?
Patterns of power and dominance
What is the visual dominance ratio?
The ratio of the percentage of time looking into someone’s eyes while speaking relative to the percentage of time looking into someone’s eyes while listening
- Men show higher visual dominance but when women have power, they become visually dominant
What are the two types of posture?
- Contractive posture
- Expansive posture such as manspreading
What does language reflect?
Language reflects thought processes
- If we change how we think, language will follow
What happens when you use sexist language?
Sexist language shapes our thoughts about women and men
- Language encodes power inequalities, can normalize bias
What is the Whorfian hypothesis?
A theory that the language we learn influences how we think
What are three examples of sexist language use?
- Misgendering
- Infantilizing
- Androcentrism
What is misgendering?
Using gendered language inconsistent with individual gender identity (e.g., using the wrong pronoun to describe and individual
What is infantilizing?
Treating individuals as if they were a child (e.g., referring to women as “girls”, “babes”
What is androcentrism?
Male as normative
According to Hyde’s Wudgemaker study (1984) did pronouns affect how children thought about gender in women’s occupations?
Yes if the pronoun was he they would think a man was better suited and vice versa
What is the gender stereotype endorsement?
More likely to view emotion through gendered lens
What was the emotion of girls in Condry and Condry’s (1976) jack-in-the-box experiment?
Fear
What was the emotion of boys in Condry and Condry’s (1976) jack-in-the-box experiment?
Anger
What was the emotion of girls with father involvement and gendered emotion?
Less fear and sadness compared to girls of uninvolved fathers
What was the emotion of boys with father involvement and gendered emotion?
More warmth and fear instead of anger
What happens to emotions in gender and sexual minorities?
Highest levels of negative emotions
What happens to emotions to people who are not in neither gender or sexual minorities?
Highest levels of positive emotions
True or False: Is there a connection between resilience and emotional well-being?
True.
There is a connection between resilience and emotional well-being
What are stereotypes?
Beliefs and opinions about characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of members of groups
- “qualities believed to be associated with particular groups or categories of people”
Where do stereotypes come from?
They can potentially come from shared beliefs that are part of a culture
Are stereotypes descriptive or prescriptive?
They can be both
Are stereotypes always negative?
It can sometimes be positive
Stereotypes can include the cultural beliefs about: ?
- Appearance
- Interests
- Personality
What is the cognitive approach to stereotypes?
We’re getting a whole bunch of information and we have to organize it
What is the psychodynamic approach to stereotypes?
We have to figure out ways to protect ourselves
What is the sociocultural approach to stereotypes?
Just there so we can organize our norms and expectations
The reason you believe stereotypes exist will effect what?
It will effect how you use the stereotype
What are implicit stereotypes?
Learned, automatic associations between social categories (e.g., female) and other attributes (e.g., nurse but not mathematician)
What is the intersectional approach to gender stereotypes?
Gender stereotypes may not be the same in different ethnic groups
- Not very rigid
- Over laps between ethnic groups
What percentage of people agreed with the statement in 1977 compared to 2018: It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.
1977: 66%
2018: 26%
What percentage of people agreed with the statement in 1977 compared to 2018: Most men are better suited emotionally for politics than are most women.
1977: 49%
2018: 14%
What are stereotypes about trans individuals?
- Trans individuals are gay or lesbian people
- They tend to conflate sexual orientation with gender identity
- People tend to align stereotypes with the gender binary
What is prejudice?
Attitude directed toward people because they are members of a specific social group
- Based on emotion
Where does prejudice originate from?
Multiple sources:
- perceived threat
- disgust of some groups
- personality traits (e.g., right-wing authoritarianism) of the perceiver
What is discrimination?
Treating people differently from others based primarily on membership in a group
- can be verbal or behavioral
- occurs on various levels in society: individual to the cultural
What is categorization?
Natural and necessary process to organize and understand information by linking similar things together
- the prejudice and stereotypes are what makes it an issue
What is social categorization?
The classification of people into groups on the basis of common attributes
What is the assumption of a gender binary?
Assumption that there are only two genders, female and male
What are the consequences of social categorization and outgroup-ingroup distinctions?
Outgroup homogeneity effect
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
Outgroups the differences between groups
- Believe in a fundamental factor that makes two groups very different from each other (e.g., biological)
Underestimate the differences between groups - might think that women are all the same
True or False: There is a lot of overlap between men and women in scores that might lead to gender differences
True there is a lot of overlap between men and women
Where do gender stereotypes come from?
There is a historical perspective and a psychological perspective
What is the historical perspective?
- Doctrine of two spheres: used to be in similar spheres. The women were at home and the men were outside.
- Cult of True womanhood
What is the psychological perspective?
- Social categorization
- Kernel of truth hypothesis vs. social construction?
How are stereotypes maintained from a psychological perspective?
- Illusory Correlation
- Confirmation bias
How do stereotypes develop in children?
- Awareness of gender
- Learn associations between gender and categories
- Generalization
- Stereotyping increases between the ages of 5 to 7 then decreases
What is the main factor in bottom-up categorization?
Body cues
What is body cues on bottom-up categorization?
Body size and motion provide cues about social group membership
What is an example of body cues?
When determining another’s biological sex, body shape is the primary cue
- People rely on the knowledge that women have narrower waists and a smaller shoulder width than men
What is the main factor in top-down categorization?
Situational Influence
What is situational influence in top-down categorization?
– The social context can influence categorization
– People focus on what makes
another person look “different”
in a given context
What is an example of situational influence?
Asian woman in a group of Asian men is more likely to be categorized as a woman
What do people believe in gender polarization?
- What is masculine is not feminine
- What is feminine is not masculine
What is the “woman are wonderful” effect?
The basic category “woman” is viewed more positively than the basic category “man”
What is aggressive behavior?
- Intention to harm another person
Are there gender differences in aggressive behavior?
Yes there are gender differences in aggressive behavior
What is the highest type of aggression and who displays in more
Physical aggression and boys do
What type of aggression are girls more likely to engage with?
Indirect aggression
What are the origins of aggression?
- Evolutionary psychology
- Behavioral genetics
- Biological theories
- Neurological theories
Why do males aggress?
To achieve/maintain status
Why do females aggress?
To protect offspring
Is there heritability to human aggressiveness?
Yes. Some
What are the neurological theories of aggression?
- Boosting serotonin can dampen aggressiveness
- Structure of fontal lobe linked to aggression and violent behavior
- Impaired prefrontal cortex in particular can disrupt executive functioning
True or False: Low levels of serotonin is associated with high levels of aggression
True
What is impulsivity?
The tendency to act spontaneously
What are aspects of impulsivity?
- Reward sensitivity
- Sensation seeking
- Risk taking
- Impulse control: being able to control one’s action
What is reward sensitivity?
Being especially likely to do something because it will feel good right now
What were the meta-analysis findings on men and women in regards to impulsivity?
- Men scored higher than women on risk taking sensation seeking
- No gender differences in reward sensitivity or impulse control
What are the causes of gender differences in activity?
- Social interactions
- Developmental precocity of girls
- Males having higher activity level
What is self-esteem?
One’s level of global positive regard
What are the differences for self-esteem for girls from elementary to adulthood?
Elementary: No gender differences
Early adolescence: Small gender differences
High school: Larger gender differences
Adulthood: No gender difference
What is self confidence?
A person’s belief that they can be successful at a particular task or in a particular domain such as athletics or academics
Are males or females more anxious
Females are more anxious
- One large, cross-national study found d = –0.38 for self-reports of general anxiety
What is the gender similarities hypothesis?
The hypothesis that men and women are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables
What is the evidence for the gender similarities hypothesis?
Evidence from meta-analyses: 78% of the gender differences were small or smaller.
– Exceptions: Aggressive behavior
How do we measure endorsement of gender stereotypes?
- Explicit self-report measures
- Implicit measures
- Observations
What are implicit stereotypes?
Learned, automatic associations between social categories and other attributes
What does the implicit association test assess?
Reaction time
What is the math and gender implicit stereotypes?
People respond faster to the male and math pairing than to the female and math pairing
What is stereotype-congruent?
Easy and fast
- Your mind is already primer for this stereotype
What is stereotype-incongruent
Difficult and slow
What is old-fashioned sexism?
- Endorsement of traditional gender roles
- Differential treatment of women vs. men
- Stereotypes: women less competent than men
- Predicts overt sexism
What is overt sexism?
Very vocal about not wanting women to do certain things
What is modern sexism?
- Denial of continued discrimination
- Antagonism towards women’s demands
- Lack of support for policies designed to help women
- Predicts subtle or covert sexism
What is hostile sexism?
- Justification of male dominance and power
- Belief in traditional gender roles
- Exploitation of women (e.g., sex objects
- Dominate paternalism
What are some examples of hostile sexism?
- Many women are actually seeking special favors, such as hiring policies that favor them over men, under the guise of asking for equality
- Women seek to gain power by getting control over men
- Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash
- When women lose to men in a fair competition, they typically complain about being discriminated against
What is benevolent sexism?
- Romanticized view of women
- Need and desire to protect women
- Patronizing
- Protective paternalism
On the surface very positive
What are examples of benevolent sexism?
- Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess
- Women should be cherished and protected by men
- Men should be willing to sacrifice their own well being in order to provide financially for the women in their lives
What is ambivalent sexism?
- Not solely hostile in nature
- Traditional attitudes toward women can be both positive and negative
- Share common assumption: women are weak
How prevalent is sexism today in the wage disparity by gender?
The gender gap is closing but it is still there
- There is also disparity by gender and race
What is the uncontrolled gender pay gap?
This “opportunity pay gap” measures median salary for all men and all women
82 cents
What is the controlled gender pay gap?
This measures median salary for men and women with the same job qualifications
98 cents
What is the importance of inclusiveness in STEM fields?
- Companies with greater racial and gender diversity: higher sales, revenue, number of customers and market share
- Gender diversity on technical work teams: adherence to project schedules, lower costs, higher performance ratings
- Mixed gender tech teams: 40% more information and technology patents than all-male teams
- Women in computing earn 87% of male salary (compared to average 79%
