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PSY of Women > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

How many modes of communication are there?

A

There are four

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2
Q

What are the 4 modes of communication?

A
  • language
  • facial expression
  • body language
  • voice
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3
Q

What is included in the voice mode of communication?

A

Pitch and hesitation

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4
Q

What is psycholinguistics?

A

The study of the factors that allow people to acquire, use, and understand language; communicate information

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5
Q

What did the linguist Deborah Tannen (1991) contribute to the gender differences in language use?

A
  • Different cultures hypothesis - men and women communicated as if they were from two different cultures
  • Different goals in communication
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6
Q

What were the different goals in communication between women and men?

A

Women: conversation maintenance (affiliation)
- affiliated goals

Men: conversation dominance
- dominate goals

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7
Q

What are tag questions?

A

A short phrase is added to a sentence, which turns it into a question

  • “It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?”
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8
Q

What is an example of disclaimers?

A

“I may be wrong, but…”

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9
Q

What is an example of hedges?
And what is the d value?

A

Weakens or softens a statement
- “sort of”
- “This is kind of like…”

d= -015

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10
Q

What is an example of intensifers?
And what is the d value?

A

“Very”, “really”
d= -0.38

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11
Q

What is tentativeness?

A

Using language such as “sort of” to soften their language

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12
Q

Who did the meta-analysis for tentativeness?

A

Leaper and Robnett
2011

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13
Q

What did the meta-analysis by Leaper and Robnett for tentativeness say?

A

That they are context moderates gender differences in tentativeness
- seeing how people act while communicating in public

  • Lab studies: d= -0.28
  • Naturalistic studies: d= -0.09
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14
Q

What is a form of interruption in language use?

A

Interjecting

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15
Q

True or False: Women interrupt men more than men interrupt women

A

False.
Men interrupt women more than women interrupt men

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16
Q

What are the meaning of interruptions?

A
  • Express power, control
  • Express disagreement
  • Change the subject
  • Request clarification
  • Express agreement or support
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17
Q

What are the dominating forms of interrupting?

A
  • Express power, control
  • Express disagreement
  • Change the subject
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18
Q

What are the gender differences in language use in terms of children’s speech?

A

Girls use more affiliative speech (e.g., praise or agreement) (adopting extreme versions of stereotype) than boys
d= 0.26

Boys use more assertive speech (e.g., criticisms) than girls
d= 0.10

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19
Q

Do gender differences in language use shrink in adulthood?

A

Yes gender differences do shrink in adulthood
d= -0.12

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20
Q

What are the applications of verbal communication?

A

Persuade, solve problems, and connect with people

Communicate therapy

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21
Q

What are female-linked topics?

A
  • More references to relationships (e.g., sister, friend, boyfriend)
  • More references to emotions (e.g., use of terms and use of emotions)
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22
Q

What are male-linked topics?

A
  • More swearing, references to sports and occupations
  • Lacked reference to emotions or positive social relationships
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23
Q

What is the gender stereotype about emotionality?

A

Cross-culturally, women are stereotyped as the emotional sex

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24
Q

What is the gender stereotype about specific emotions?

A

Some emotions are stereotyped as “female”, others as “male”

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25
Q

What are female emotions associated as?

A

Female emotions both positive and negative

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26
Q

What are male emotions associated with?

A

Males emotions are associated with dominance

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27
Q

What are the politics of emotion?

A
  • Regulate behavior
  • Emotional control
  • Leadership
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28
Q

What is the experience of emotion theory?

A

Men and women don’t differ in experience of emotion

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29
Q

What is the expression of emotion theory?

A

Men and women differ greatly in expression of emotion

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30
Q

What are display rules?

A

Culture’s rules for which emotions can be expressed or displayed and by whom

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31
Q

What are the ways to measure emotion?

A
  • Physiological
  • Subjective experience (self-report)
  • Observations of emotional expression
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32
Q

How do you measure emotion physiologically?

A
  • E.g., heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductance
  • Neuroimaging techniques (fMRI)
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33
Q

How do you measure observations of emotional expression?

A
  • Direct observation by a perceiver
  • Measures of facial muscle activation through EMG
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34
Q

What did John Cacioppo and Richard Petty use?
1997

A

Used facial EMG to identify muscle activity associated with attitudes

  • Electrodes on the face to pick up muscle activity
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35
Q

What are messages that Richard Petty agreed with?

A

Muscles in cheek is associated with happiness

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36
Q

What are messages that Richard Petty disagreed with?

A

Muscles in forehead associated with sadness and distress

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37
Q

What are the two types of expressions?

A

Externalizers and Internalizers

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38
Q

Whar are the gender differences in emotional experience and expression according to Kring and Gordon’s 1998 research?

A
  • Women were more facially expressive than men
  • But, patterns of gender differences depended on the aspect of emotion being measured
  • Women were externalizers (facially expressive) measured by videos
  • Men were internalizers (physiologically reactive)
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39
Q

Were women or men more expressive across films?

A

Women were more expressive than men across all films

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40
Q

What did women show more of compared to men in regards to emotions on the films?

A
  • Women showed more positive and negative emotional expressions
  • Men showed more skin conductance (sweating) in response to fear and anger related films
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41
Q

What are the gender differences in emotional experience and expression?

A
  • Girls and women use more emotional words and talk more about their emotions than boys and men do
  • Women report greater emotional intensity than men
  • By elementary school, girls are better than boys at controlling their emotions and displaying socially appropriate emotions
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42
Q

What are automatic/unconscious social influences?

A

Mimicry and the chameleon effect

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43
Q

What is mimicry?

A

Copying the behavior, language, and physical appearance of others

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44
Q

What is the chameleon effect or behavioral effect?

A
  • Tendency to adopt the postures, gestures and mannerisms of interaction partners
  • Trained confederates to repeat behaviors (rub face or shake leg)
  • Observed behavior of participants
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45
Q

What is the evolutionary role of mimicry?

A

Communication and survival

  • Infants mimic within 72 hours of birth
  • 9-month olds: mimic abstract emotions (e.g., sadness, joy)
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46
Q

What do animals mimic?

A

Vocal, behavioral

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47
Q

What is the social role of mimicry?

A

It fosters affiliation, rapport, and liking

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48
Q

What happens when confederates mimic the behavior of interaction partners?

A
  • Greater liking of confederates
  • Smoother interaction
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49
Q

What should you do if you are feeling ostracized from a group?

A

Mimic to increase belonging

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50
Q

What do men prefer for interpersonal distance?

A

men prefer larger interpersonal distance

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51
Q

What are the effects of gender, gender role identification, and sexual orientation on interpersonal distance?

A

There are effects of interpersonal distance seen with gender

There are minimal effects of interpersonal distance seen by sexual orientation

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52
Q

Why do we smile?

A
  • To communicate friendliness?
  • To communicate subservience?
  • Part of female role
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53
Q

What are the gender differences in smiling within a lifespan?

A
  • Infancy and childhood: nonexistent d= -0.01
  • In adolescence, the gender difference grows to d= -0.56
  • Middle adulthood: d= -0.30
  • Other adulthood: d= -0.11
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54
Q

What does eye contact reflect?

A

Patterns of power and dominance

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55
Q

What is the visual dominance ratio?

A

The ratio of the percentage of time looking into someone’s eyes while speaking relative to the percentage of time looking into someone’s eyes while listening

  • Men show higher visual dominance but when women have power, they become visually dominant
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56
Q

What are the two types of posture?

A
  • Contractive posture
  • Expansive posture such as manspreading
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57
Q

What does language reflect?

A

Language reflects thought processes

  • If we change how we think, language will follow
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58
Q

What happens when you use sexist language?

A

Sexist language shapes our thoughts about women and men

  • Language encodes power inequalities, can normalize bias
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59
Q

What is the Whorfian hypothesis?

A

A theory that the language we learn influences how we think

60
Q

What are three examples of sexist language use?

A
  • Misgendering
  • Infantilizing
  • Androcentrism
61
Q

What is misgendering?

A

Using gendered language inconsistent with individual gender identity (e.g., using the wrong pronoun to describe and individual

62
Q

What is infantilizing?

A

Treating individuals as if they were a child (e.g., referring to women as “girls”, “babes”

63
Q

What is androcentrism?

A

Male as normative

64
Q

According to Hyde’s Wudgemaker study (1984) did pronouns affect how children thought about gender in women’s occupations?

A

Yes if the pronoun was he they would think a man was better suited and vice versa

65
Q

What is the gender stereotype endorsement?

A

More likely to view emotion through gendered lens

66
Q

What was the emotion of girls in Condry and Condry’s (1976) jack-in-the-box experiment?

A

Fear

67
Q

What was the emotion of boys in Condry and Condry’s (1976) jack-in-the-box experiment?

A

Anger

68
Q

What was the emotion of girls with father involvement and gendered emotion?

A

Less fear and sadness compared to girls of uninvolved fathers

69
Q

What was the emotion of boys with father involvement and gendered emotion?

A

More warmth and fear instead of anger

70
Q

What happens to emotions in gender and sexual minorities?

A

Highest levels of negative emotions

71
Q

What happens to emotions to people who are not in neither gender or sexual minorities?

A

Highest levels of positive emotions

72
Q

True or False: Is there a connection between resilience and emotional well-being?

A

True.

There is a connection between resilience and emotional well-being

73
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

Beliefs and opinions about characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of members of groups

  • “qualities believed to be associated with particular groups or categories of people”
74
Q

Where do stereotypes come from?

A

They can potentially come from shared beliefs that are part of a culture

75
Q

Are stereotypes descriptive or prescriptive?

A

They can be both

76
Q

Are stereotypes always negative?

A

It can sometimes be positive

77
Q

Stereotypes can include the cultural beliefs about: ?

A
  • Appearance
  • Interests
  • Personality
78
Q

What is the cognitive approach to stereotypes?

A

We’re getting a whole bunch of information and we have to organize it

79
Q

What is the psychodynamic approach to stereotypes?

A

We have to figure out ways to protect ourselves

80
Q

What is the sociocultural approach to stereotypes?

A

Just there so we can organize our norms and expectations

81
Q

The reason you believe stereotypes exist will effect what?

A

It will effect how you use the stereotype

82
Q

What are implicit stereotypes?

A

Learned, automatic associations between social categories (e.g., female) and other attributes (e.g., nurse but not mathematician)

83
Q

What is the intersectional approach to gender stereotypes?

A

Gender stereotypes may not be the same in different ethnic groups

  • Not very rigid
  • Over laps between ethnic groups
84
Q

What percentage of people agreed with the statement in 1977 compared to 2018: It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.

A

1977: 66%

2018: 26%

85
Q

What percentage of people agreed with the statement in 1977 compared to 2018: Most men are better suited emotionally for politics than are most women.

A

1977: 49%

2018: 14%

86
Q

What are stereotypes about trans individuals?

A
  • Trans individuals are gay or lesbian people
  • They tend to conflate sexual orientation with gender identity
  • People tend to align stereotypes with the gender binary
87
Q

What is prejudice?

A

Attitude directed toward people because they are members of a specific social group

  • Based on emotion
88
Q

Where does prejudice originate from?

A

Multiple sources:

  • perceived threat
  • disgust of some groups
  • personality traits (e.g., right-wing authoritarianism) of the perceiver
89
Q

What is discrimination?

A

Treating people differently from others based primarily on membership in a group

  • can be verbal or behavioral
  • occurs on various levels in society: individual to the cultural
90
Q

What is categorization?

A

Natural and necessary process to organize and understand information by linking similar things together

  • the prejudice and stereotypes are what makes it an issue
91
Q

What is social categorization?

A

The classification of people into groups on the basis of common attributes

92
Q

What is the assumption of a gender binary?

A

Assumption that there are only two genders, female and male

93
Q

What are the consequences of social categorization and outgroup-ingroup distinctions?

A

Outgroup homogeneity effect

94
Q

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?

A

Outgroups the differences between groups
- Believe in a fundamental factor that makes two groups very different from each other (e.g., biological)

Underestimate the differences between groups - might think that women are all the same

95
Q

True or False: There is a lot of overlap between men and women in scores that might lead to gender differences

A

True there is a lot of overlap between men and women

96
Q

Where do gender stereotypes come from?

A

There is a historical perspective and a psychological perspective

96
Q

What is the historical perspective?

A
  • Doctrine of two spheres: used to be in similar spheres. The women were at home and the men were outside.
  • Cult of True womanhood
97
Q

What is the psychological perspective?

A
  • Social categorization
  • Kernel of truth hypothesis vs. social construction?
98
Q

How are stereotypes maintained from a psychological perspective?

A
  • Illusory Correlation
  • Confirmation bias
99
Q

How do stereotypes develop in children?

A
  • Awareness of gender
  • Learn associations between gender and categories
  • Generalization
  • Stereotyping increases between the ages of 5 to 7 then decreases
100
Q

What is the main factor in bottom-up categorization?

A

Body cues

101
Q

What is body cues on bottom-up categorization?

A

Body size and motion provide cues about social group membership

102
Q

What is an example of body cues?

A

When determining another’s biological sex, body shape is the primary cue

  • People rely on the knowledge that women have narrower waists and a smaller shoulder width than men
103
Q

What is the main factor in top-down categorization?

A

Situational Influence

104
Q

What is situational influence in top-down categorization?

A

– The social context can influence categorization
– People focus on what makes
another person look “different”
in a given context

105
Q

What is an example of situational influence?

A

Asian woman in a group of Asian men is more likely to be categorized as a woman

106
Q

What do people believe in gender polarization?

A
  • What is masculine is not feminine
  • What is feminine is not masculine
107
Q

What is the “woman are wonderful” effect?

A

The basic category “woman” is viewed more positively than the basic category “man”

108
Q

What is aggressive behavior?

A
  • Intention to harm another person
109
Q

Are there gender differences in aggressive behavior?

A

Yes there are gender differences in aggressive behavior

110
Q

What is the highest type of aggression and who displays in more

A

Physical aggression and boys do

111
Q

What type of aggression are girls more likely to engage with?

A

Indirect aggression

112
Q

What are the origins of aggression?

A
  • Evolutionary psychology
  • Behavioral genetics
  • Biological theories
  • Neurological theories
113
Q

Why do males aggress?

A

To achieve/maintain status

114
Q

Why do females aggress?

A

To protect offspring

115
Q

Is there heritability to human aggressiveness?

A

Yes. Some

116
Q

What are the neurological theories of aggression?

A
  • Boosting serotonin can dampen aggressiveness
  • Structure of fontal lobe linked to aggression and violent behavior
  • Impaired prefrontal cortex in particular can disrupt executive functioning
117
Q

True or False: Low levels of serotonin is associated with high levels of aggression

A

True

118
Q

What is impulsivity?

A

The tendency to act spontaneously

119
Q

What are aspects of impulsivity?

A
  • Reward sensitivity
  • Sensation seeking
  • Risk taking
  • Impulse control: being able to control one’s action
120
Q

What is reward sensitivity?

A

Being especially likely to do something because it will feel good right now

121
Q

What were the meta-analysis findings on men and women in regards to impulsivity?

A
  • Men scored higher than women on risk taking sensation seeking
  • No gender differences in reward sensitivity or impulse control
122
Q

What are the causes of gender differences in activity?

A
  • Social interactions
  • Developmental precocity of girls
  • Males having higher activity level
123
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

One’s level of global positive regard

124
Q

What are the differences for self-esteem for girls from elementary to adulthood?

A

Elementary: No gender differences

Early adolescence: Small gender differences
High school: Larger gender differences

Adulthood: No gender difference

125
Q

What is self confidence?

A

A person’s belief that they can be successful at a particular task or in a particular domain such as athletics or academics

126
Q

Are males or females more anxious

A

Females are more anxious

  • One large, cross-national study found d = –0.38 for self-reports of general anxiety
127
Q

What is the gender similarities hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis that men and women are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables

128
Q

What is the evidence for the gender similarities hypothesis?

A

Evidence from meta-analyses: 78% of the gender differences were small or smaller.

– Exceptions: Aggressive behavior

129
Q

How do we measure endorsement of gender stereotypes?

A
  • Explicit self-report measures
  • Implicit measures
  • Observations
130
Q

What are implicit stereotypes?

A

Learned, automatic associations between social categories and other attributes

131
Q

What does the implicit association test assess?

A

Reaction time

132
Q

What is the math and gender implicit stereotypes?

A

People respond faster to the male and math pairing than to the female and math pairing

133
Q

What is stereotype-congruent?

A

Easy and fast

  • Your mind is already primer for this stereotype
134
Q

What is stereotype-incongruent

A

Difficult and slow

135
Q

What is old-fashioned sexism?

A
  • Endorsement of traditional gender roles
  • Differential treatment of women vs. men
  • Stereotypes: women less competent than men
  • Predicts overt sexism
136
Q

What is overt sexism?

A

Very vocal about not wanting women to do certain things

137
Q

What is modern sexism?

A
  • Denial of continued discrimination
  • Antagonism towards women’s demands
  • Lack of support for policies designed to help women
  • Predicts subtle or covert sexism
138
Q

What is hostile sexism?

A
  • Justification of male dominance and power
  • Belief in traditional gender roles
  • Exploitation of women (e.g., sex objects
  • Dominate paternalism
139
Q

What are some examples of hostile sexism?

A
  • Many women are actually seeking special favors, such as hiring policies that favor them over men, under the guise of asking for equality
  • Women seek to gain power by getting control over men
  • Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash
  • When women lose to men in a fair competition, they typically complain about being discriminated against
140
Q

What is benevolent sexism?

A
  • Romanticized view of women
  • Need and desire to protect women
  • Patronizing
  • Protective paternalism

On the surface very positive

141
Q

What are examples of benevolent sexism?

A
  • Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess
  • Women should be cherished and protected by men
  • Men should be willing to sacrifice their own well being in order to provide financially for the women in their lives
142
Q

What is ambivalent sexism?

A
  • Not solely hostile in nature
  • Traditional attitudes toward women can be both positive and negative
  • Share common assumption: women are weak
143
Q

How prevalent is sexism today in the wage disparity by gender?

A

The gender gap is closing but it is still there

  • There is also disparity by gender and race
144
Q

What is the uncontrolled gender pay gap?

A

This “opportunity pay gap” measures median salary for all men and all women

82 cents

145
Q

What is the controlled gender pay gap?

A

This measures median salary for men and women with the same job qualifications

98 cents

146
Q

What is the importance of inclusiveness in STEM fields?

A
  • Companies with greater racial and gender diversity: higher sales, revenue, number of customers and market share
  • Gender diversity on technical work teams: adherence to project schedules, lower costs, higher performance ratings
  • Mixed gender tech teams: 40% more information and technology patents than all-male teams
  • Women in computing earn 87% of male salary (compared to average 79%

PSY of Women (4 decks)

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