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Anatomy > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is an articulation? (2)

A

Site where two or more bones meet (joint)
Give the skeleton mobility and stability

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2
Q

What is functional classification?

A

Based on the amount of movement occurring at the joint
Includes synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses

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3
Q

Synarthroses (& examples)

A

Nonmovable
Tooth to jaw, sutures, costochondral joints, epiphyseal plates

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4
Q

Amphiarthroses (& examples)

A

Slightly movable
Articulation between radius and ulna, between the tibia and fibula, pubic symphysis, intervertebral disc articulations

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5
Q

Diarthroses (& examples)

A

Freely movable
Hinge (knee), Pivot (alatoaxial), ball and socket (hip, shoulder), saddle (between carpal and first metacarpal), condylar (metacarpo-phalangeal) joints

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6
Q

+Diarthroses further classifications

A

Diarthroses are classified as uniaxial (for movement in one plane), biaxial (for movement in two planes), or multiaxial joints (for movement in all three anatomical planes).

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7
Q

+Uniaxial, biaxial and multiaxial joints

A

A uniaxial joint only allows for a motion in a single plane (around a single axis). The elbow joint, which only allows for bending or straightening, is an example of a uniaxial joint.
A biaxial joint allows for motions within two planes. An example of a biaxial joint is a metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle joint) of the hand.
A joint that allows for the several directions of movement is called a multiaxial joint This type of diarthrotic joint allows for movement along three axes. The shoulder and hip joints are multiaxial joints.

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8
Q

What is structural classification?

A

Based on what tissue type binds the bones together
Includes fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, and synovial joints
**Further classified by joint shape

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9
Q

Fibrous joints

A

Held together by dense regular connective tissue, holds bones in close contact
3 types: syndesmosis, suture, gomphosis

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10
Q

Syndesmosis

A

2 long bones bound by a sheet or bundle of dense connective tissue
Amphiarthrotic - flexible, may twist

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11
Q

Gomphosis

A

Cone-shaped bony process in a socket in jawbone - maxilla and mandible
Synarthrotic - immovable

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12
Q

Suture

A

Between flat bones of skull
Thin layer of connective tissue (sutural ligament) connects bones
Synarthrotic - immovable

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13
Q

Cartilaginous tissue types

A

Synchondrosis and Symphysis

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14
Q

Synchondrosis

A

Bands of hyaline cartilage unite bone
Some are temporary: epiphyseal plate
Some are permanent: between manubrium and first rib only - synarthrotic

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15
Q

Symphysis

A

Pad of fibrocartilage between bones
Amphiarthrotic: limited movement by joint compression
Pubic symphysis, between bodies of adjacent vertebrae (intervertebral discs)

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16
Q

Synovial Joints

A

(all diarthroses)
Bones are separated by a fluid filled joint cavity
Very movable; joints of the limbs, most joints of the body

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17
Q

List the 5 Distinguishing Features of synovial joints

A

Articular cartilage, a joint (synovial) cavity, synovial fluid, a joint capsule, and reinforcing ligaments

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18
Q

Articular cartilage

A

Hyaline cartilage found on the ends of long bones (provides smooth surface, reduces friction, absorbs shock)

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19
Q

Joint (synovial cavity)

A

Space that surrounds joint (filled with synovial fluid)

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20
Q

Synovial fluid

A

Reduces friction, nourishes cartilage cells

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21
Q

Joint (articular) capsule

A

Encloses the joint
Composed of a fibrous capsule and a synovial membrane

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22
Q

Fibrous capsule

A

Outer layer of joint capsule
Composed of dense irregular connective tissue

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23
Q

Synovial membrane

A

Lines inside of fibrous capsule
Produces synovial fluid

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24
Q

Reinforcing ligaments

A

Can be found inside and outside of joint cavity
Can form part of the joint capsule

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25
Q

Other structures associated with synovial joints

A

Bursae (bursa sacs) and tendon sheaths

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26
Q

Bursae

A

Sacs filled with synovial fluid that reduce friction

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27
Q

Tendon sheaths

A

Elongated bursae which wrap around tendons, reduce friction

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28
Q

The types of synovial joints are…

A

Ball and socket joint, condylar joint, plane joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, saddle joint

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29
Q

Ball and socket joint

A

Ball and cup shaped cavity
Widest range of motion
Multiaxial, plus rotation
Least stable

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30
Q

Condylar joint

A

Oval condyle fits into elliptical cavity
Back and forth, side to side movements
No rotation
Example: between radius and carpals

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31
Q

Plane Joint

A

Also called gliding joint
Almost flat, or slightly curved
Back and forth, gliding and twisting
Example: between carpal bones

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32
Q

Hinge joint

A

Convex surface fits into concave surface of other bone
Uniaxial movement (in 1 plane)
Example: elbow, knee, ankle, interphalangeal joints

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33
Q

Pivot joint

A

Cylindrical surface rotates within ring of other bone
Rotation only
Example: between axis and atlas

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34
Q

Saddle joint

A

Both bones have concave and convex surfaces
Biaxial movement (in 2 planes)
Example: between trapezium and first metacarpal

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35
Q

How to classify fractures

A

Displaced vs nondisplaced fractures
(displaced - ends out of alignment)
Incomplete vs complete
(complete - bone broken through)
Simple (closed) vs compound (open)
(compound: bone is exposed to outside through opening in skin or mucous membrane

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36
Q

Greenstick fracture

A

Incomplete, and the break occurs on the convex surface of the bend in the bone

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37
Q

Fissured fracture

A

Incomplete, longitudinal break

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38
Q

Comminuted fracture

A

Complete, and fragments the bone

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39
Q

Transverse fracture

A

Complete, and the break occurs at a right angle to the axis of the bone

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40
Q

Oblique fracture

A

Occurs at an angle other than a right angle to the axis of the bone

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41
Q

Spiral fracture

A

Caused by excessive twisting of a bone

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42
Q

Simple fracture repair steps (explain in detail)

A

Fracture needs to be reduced (realigned) and then immobilized
1) Hematoma - Large blood clot
Blood escapes from ruptured blood vessels and forms a hematoma
2) Fibrocartilage callus - fibroblasts and chondrocytes form callus reconnecting broken ends
Spongy bone forms in regions close to developing blood vessels, and fibrocartilage forms in more distant regions
3) Bony callus - osteoblasts invade, hard callus fills space
A hard (bony callus) replaces fibrocartilage
4) Remodeling - Bone restored close to original shape and structure
Osteoclasts remove excess bony tissue, restoring new bone structure like original

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43
Q

Temporomandibular Joint

A

Formed by the mandibular condyles of the mandible and the mandibular fossae of the temporal bones

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44
Q

++TMJ additional

A

This small, complex articulation is the only movable joint between skull bones.
Loose articular capsule surrounds joint and promotes extensive range of motion
POORLY stabilized, forceful anterior or lateral movement of mandible can result in partial or complete dislocation of mandible.
Joint contains an articular disc, thick pad of fibrocartilage separating the articulating bones and extending horizontally to divide the joint cavity into 2 separate chambers.
Really 2 synovial joints, one between temporal bone and articular disc, second between articular disc and mandible

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45
Q

Shoulder (glenohumeral) Joint

A

Most moveable joint in the body
Formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid fossa (cavity) of the scapula

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46
Q

Associated structures of the shoulder joint?

A

Glenoid labrum, ligaments of the shoulder, rotator cuff muscles

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47
Q

Glenoid labrum

A

Rim of fibrocartilage which deepens the joint cavity

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48
Q

Ligaments of the shoulder

A

Help stabilize the shoulder (relatively little)
Major ligaments associated with shoulder include:
glenohumeral, acromioclavicular, coracoclavicular, coracoacromial ligaments

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49
Q

Rotator cuff muscles

A

Major mole in stabilizing the shoulder joint
Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis work as a group to hold the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity

++The tendons of these ligaments encircle the joint (except inferior portion) and fuse with articular capsule. because inferior portion lacks rotator cuff muscles, area is weak and most likely site of injury

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50
Q

Hip (coxal) Joint

A

Very strong, stable joint
Formed by the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the coxal bone

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51
Q

++Hip Joint stability

A

Much stronger and more stable than that of glenohumeral joint.
Secured by a strong articular capsule, which extends from the acetabulum to trochanters of femur, preventing head from moving away from acetabulum

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52
Q

associated structures of the hip?

A

Acetabular labrum and ligaments

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53
Q

Acetabular labrum

A

Circular rim of fibrocartilage that helps deepen the joint cavity

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54
Q

Ligaments of the hip

A

Major ligaments associated with the hip include the ligaments of the joint capsule and ligament of the head of the femur (ligamentum teres)

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55
Q

Ligaments of the joint capsule

A

Thickenings of the joint capsule that help strengthen the coxal joint

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56
Q

Ligamentum teres (and role)

A

Attaches the head of the femur to the acetabulum
Plays no role in strengthening the coxal joint
Contains an artery that helps supply oxygenated blood to the head of the femur, damage to this artery can result in arthritis

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57
Q

Knee Joint

A

Most complex joint in the body
Formed by the medial and lateral condyles of the femur and the medial/lateral articular surfaces (condyles) of the tibia
2 joints: tibial and femoral condyles and also patellar surface of femur and patella

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58
Q

What does knee joint allow?

A

For some rotation and gliding when flexed

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59
Q

associated structures of the knee?

A

menisci, ligaments, and bursae

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60
Q

Menisci (medial and lateral)

A

Fibrocartilage discs located between the tibial condyles and femoral condyles
Help deepen the joint cavity and help absorb shock

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61
Q

Ligaments of the knee

A

Help stabilize the knee joint
Major ligaments associated include the patellar, medial collateral, lateral collateral, anterior cruciate and posterior cruciate ligaments

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62
Q

Patellar ligament (and what it attaches)

A

Continuation of the patellar tendon
Attaches the quadriceps to the tibial tuberosity of the tibia
Used to test knee-jerk reflex

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63
Q

Medial (tibial) collateral ligament (attachments and function)

A

Proximal attachment: medial epicondyle of the femur
Distal attachment: medial tibia
Function: strengthens the knee joint medially

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64
Q

Lateral (fibular) collateral ligament (attachments and function)

A

Proximal attachment: lateral epicondyle of the femur
Distal attachment: head of the fibula
Function: strengthens the knee joint laterally

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65
Q

Anterior cruciate ligament (attachments and function)

A

Proximal attachment: lateral condyle of the femur
Distal attachment: anterior portion of the intercondylar eminence
Function: prevents anterior sliding of the tibia on the femur and hyperextension of the knee

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66
Q

Posterior cruciate ligament (attachments and function)

A

Proximal attachment: medial condyle of the femur
Distal attachment: posterior portion of the intercondylar eminence
Function: prevents posterior sliding of the tibia on the femur and hyperflexion of the knee

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67
Q

Bursae

A

Help reduce friction
Number of bursae associated with knee joint (like prepatellar bursa)

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68
Q

Sprain

A

When ligament is stretched or torn
Heals very slowly

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69
Q

Dislocation

A

Bones forced out of alignment

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70
Q

The 3 types of muscle tissue

A

Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

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71
Q

What is the basis for shortening of stimulating muscle?

A

Sliding filament mechanism
Myosin filaments bind to and move actin filaments

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72
Q

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

A

Attached mainly to bones, striated, voluntary
Cells are long, cylinder like, multinucleated

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73
Q

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

A

Found in heart, striated, involuntary

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74
Q

Cardiac muscle cells

A

Shorter in length than skeletal muscle fibers and are branched
Have many intercalated disks, contains gap junctions

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75
Q

Smooth Muscle Tissue

A

Located in the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels, nonstriated, involuntary
Very different from skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue

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76
Q

Name the 4 Unique Characteristics of Muscle

A

1) Excitability
2) Contractability
3) Extensibility
4) Elasticity

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77
Q

Excitability (for each type of muscle tissue)

A

Like neurons, muscle cells can respond to a stimulus with a change in Vm
Stimulus = varies by muscle type
Skeletal muscle - release of neurotransmitter from motor neuron
Cardiac - depolarization from AR cell
Smooth - reflex/NT release/spontaneous

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78
Q

Contractability

A

Ability to shorten forcefully - actively generates force
consumes large amounts of ATP and generates heat

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79
Q

Extensibility

A

When muscles are relaxed they can be stretched like a rubber band without damage

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80
Q

Elasticity

A

After stretching muscles cell recoil back to their origin resting length

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81
Q

What two functions passively generate force in muscle contraction?

A

Extensibility and elasticity
No ATP is consumed, but force is generated by elastic properties of muscle tissue (like a rubber band)

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82
Q

Name the functions of Muscle Tissue

A

Movement, Posture/protection, Blood Pressure/Flow regulation, generates heat

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83
Q

How is muscle tissue involved in movement?

A

Skeletal: Walking, running, assisting venous return
Cardiac: pumps blood in heart
Smooth: propels food in digestive system and lymph in lymphatic system

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84
Q

How is muscle tissue involved in posture/protection?

A

Skeletal: maintains posture and abdominal wall

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85
Q

How is muscle tissue involved in blood pressure/flow regulation?

A

Smooth: vasodilation/constriction matches blood flow to metabolic rate with maintaining system BP

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86
Q

How is muscle tissue involved in generating heat?

A

Skeletal: Heat is generated during the process of muscle contraction, through voluntary movement and shivering

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87
Q

The 3 layers of connective tissue associated with skeletal muscles

A

Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium
All 3 layers of connective tissue are continuous with one another and help form the tendons of muscle

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88
Q

Epimysium

A

Layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the entire external surface of a muscle

89
Q

Perimysium

A

Layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds each fascicle (group of muscle fibers)
Also contains blood vessels

90
Q

Endomysium

A

Layer of areolar connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber; also contains blood vessels
muscle fiber = muscle cell
++ Contains reticular fibers to help bind together muscle fibers and support capillaries near these fibers

91
Q

Muscle cells structure

A

Highly specialized plasma membrane is the sarcolemma.
Contains capillaries, nuclei and transverse tubules
Carry electrical signals deep into muscle cell

92
Q

Sarcoplasm (and what it contains?)

A

Cytoplasm of a muscle cell, also highly specialized.
Contains high amounts of:
- glycogen (storage form of glucose)
- myoglobin (red pigment that stores O2 in muscle cells)
- Mitochondria (high demand for ATP)

OF course, myofibrils as well.

93
Q

Myofibrils

A

Composed of contractile units (sarcomeres) linked together end-to-end

94
Q

2 types of myofilaments

A

Thick (myosin) and thin (actin)

95
Q

Thick myofilaments (and structure)

A

Composed of the protein myosin
Resembles 2 golf clubs twisted together
Each myosin protein has a tail and several head groups.
Active portion of sarcomere- contains ATPase activity

96
Q

Myosin Tail

A

2 intertwined heavy chains
Structured

97
Q

Myosin head groups

A

4 light chains form a globular head
Binding sites - 2 for ATP and 2 for thin filament

98
Q

How is the cross bridge formed?

A

Head group of myosin forms “cross bridge” with active sites thin filament
Uses ATPase activity to hydrolyze ATP to “pull” thin filament

99
Q

Thin Myofilaments

A

Composed of the proteins actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
Thin filament = regulatory protein of sarcomere

100
Q

Actin (and structure)

A

Structural portion of thin filament
2 intertwined strands of g-actin = forms f-actin
Each molecule has a myosin binding site (active site)

101
Q

Tropomyosin

A

String like protein
Covers the myosin binding sites on actin when a muscle cell is at rest

102
Q

Troponin (and its units)

A

Contains 3 subunits
Troponin T: moves tropomyosin
Troponin I: Hold troponin complex in place
Troponin C: Binds Ca2+

103
Q

What moves tropomyosin away from active sites?

A

Ca2+ is trigger to move tropomyosin away from active sites, and initiates cross-bridge formation

104
Q

Sarcomere Structure

A

each sarcomere extends from Z line to next Z line and contains:
I (isotropic) band: contains only thin myofilaments and titin protein bisected by Z line
A band: overlapping thin and thick myofilaments
H zone: contains only thick myofilaments
M line: Middle of H zone, contains proteins that anchor thick myofilaments in center of sarcomere

105
Q

How many actin filaments can each myosin interact with?

A

Each myosin interacts with 6 actin filaments.

106
Q

How many myosin filaments can each actin interact with?

A

Each actin can interact with 3 myosin filaments.

107
Q

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (function only)

A

Stores Ca2+
Plays critical role in muscle contraction

108
Q

SER structure

A

Dilated ends of SR are called terminal cisternae - located on both sides of a T tubule

109
Q

Transverse tubules

A

Infoldings of the sarcolemma

110
Q

What makes a triad?

A

T tubules and terminal cisternae

111
Q

NMJ

A

specialized synapse between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of a muscle cell

112
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

Space between the motor neuron and sarcolemma

113
Q

Presynaptic terminal

A

Terminal portion of motor neuron
Release neurotransmitters - chemical messengers of the nervous system that open or close ion channels

114
Q

What are neurotransmitters stored in?

A

Synaptic vesicles

115
Q

Postsynaptic membrane

A

region of sarcolemma located at NMJ
Deepening of membrane: motor end plate
High density of acetylcholine receptors, folds to increase SA

116
Q

Motor units

A

Control contraction
Single motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it controls

117
Q

Innervation ratio

A

Number of neurons: fibers

118
Q

High vs low innervation ratio

A

High (1:1)
Fine motor control
Weak response
Low (1:100)
Low motor control
Strong response

119
Q

Sliding filament model

A

Thick and thin myofilaments slide past one another and cause sarcomeres to shorten

120
Q

Explain the steps (mechanism) of muscle contraction - part 1

*stop at opening of Ca2+ on terminal cisternae of SR

A

Action potential (nerve impulse) travels through neuron reaches presynaptic terminal
Opening of Ca2+ channels at presynaptic terminal (driven by gradient)
Release of NTs from pre-synaptic terminal
- Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with plasma membrane, acetylcholine enters cleft, crosses, binds to acetylcholine receptors (AchR) on the postsynaptic membrane
Action potential travels along sarcolemma, enters T-tubules
Results in opening of Ca2+ channels located on terminal cisternae of SR

121
Q

Explain the steps (mechanism) of muscle contraction - part 2

A

Ca2+ flows out of SR into sarcoplasm
Binds to troponin C
Pulls tropomyosin away from active sites on actin
Myosin heads now bind to actin (cross-bridge formation)
Energized myosin heads swivel and pull thin myofilaments closer (shortens sarcomere)

122
Q

At rest, the myosin heads are…

A

energized, ATP = already hydrolyzed

123
Q

Sarcomere shortening

A

Myosin head pulls on actin

124
Q

Cross Bridge Release

A

New ATP molecule binds myosin head groups
Sarcomere returns to resting length
Only way to release myosin head

125
Q

Rigor Mortis

A

We die, cells begin to undergo autolysis
Leaking of Ca out of SR
Ca2+ binds to troponin, triggers the binding of the myosin heads to actin
ATP not made, so myosin cannot be released from actin
results in stiffness, last 24 hours until tissues begin to die

126
Q

Termination of Muscle Contraction

A

Cessation of motor neuron APs = no Ach release
Synapse Ach level decrease
Diffusion out of synapse
Acetylcholinesterase
Cessation of Ca2+ release from SR, pump Ca2+ back into SR

127
Q

Muscle Fiber - Type 1

A

(slow oxidative)
High oxidative capacity
Myoglobin and mitochondria
Low ATPase activity
Postural muscles

128
Q

Muscle Fiber - Type 2a

A

(fast oxidative)
High oxidative/intermediate glycolytic capacity
Some myoglobin
Higher ATPase activity
Walking

129
Q

Muscle Fiber - 2b

A

(fast glycolytic)
Highest ATPase/glycolytic capacity
Jumping/sprinting

130
Q

Where are the muscle fibers located? For postural muscles, or large muscles?

A

all 3 types in a skeletal muscle
Postural muscles: predominantly Type 1
Large muscles: predominantly Type 2b
Amount of tension needed determine which fibers will be recruited - all 3 contribute overall tension

131
Q

Major Functions of the Nervous System

A

Receive information on body position/environment
Decide on/coordinate response = stimulate muscles or glands to maintain homeostasis
(some voluntary some autonomic)

132
Q

2 cell types in neural tissue

A

Neurons: send/receive nerve impulses for communication, integrate and relay information
Neuroglia: surround and support neurons

133
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Integration center for nervous system
Process sensory info and form a division
Brain and spinal cord - dorsal body cavities

134
Q

Peripheral nervous system (components)

A

connects CNS to all other body parts
cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, plexuses

135
Q

Cranial nerves

A

special senses and head/eye movement, balance - 12 pairs

136
Q

Spinal nerves

A

motor/sensory info to and from spine - 31 pairs

137
Q

Ganglia

A

collections of neuron cell bodies in PNS

138
Q

Plexuses

A

Interweaving network of anterior spinal nerves

139
Q

The 2 main fiber types of the sensory afferent divison

A

Somatic (body) sensory fibers - temperature, pressure, pain, joint/muscle position.
Visceral sensory fibers -
sensory info about organs, like lung inflation level, stomach distension, etc.

140
Q

2 branches of motor (efferent) division

A

Somatic nervous system - voluntary nervous system, consciously control muscle activation
Automatic nervous system - regulation activity of organs - heart muscle activity, GI tract activity, gland secretions, smooth muscle

141
Q

Sympathetic nervous system vs parasympathetic

A

Fight or Flight
Increased HR/breathing, sweating, dilated pupils
Parasympathetic - rest and digest, conserve energy

142
Q

Glia (neuroglia)

A

supports cells, most numerous, originally thought to be structural only

143
Q

The glial cells of the CNS are…

A

Astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes

144
Q

The glial cells of the PNS are…

A

Schwann cells, satellite cells

145
Q

Astrocytes

A

support cells, most numerous of all glia, nourish neurons
Control extracellular environment of neurons
Mop up excess neurotransmitters and/or ions released by neurons
Facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between capillaries
Form the blood-brain barrier

146
Q

Microglia

A

“immune system” of the CNS
Destroy invading cells which have entered into the CNS
Remove the remains of dead neurons

147
Q

Why are microglia important?

A

Very important: white blood cells cannot excess the CNS

148
Q

Ependymal cells

A

Wrap around inside of dorsal body cavities
Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Maintains ion composition and pH of CNS tissue, ciliated: helps to circulate CSF

149
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Form myelin sheaths around neuron processes
Increase how rapidly electrical signals travel down axon

150
Q

Schwann cells

A

Similar to oligodendrocytes in CNS
Form myelin sheath in PNS
Vital to nerve regeneration (little/no CNS regeneration)

151
Q

Satellite cells

A

Similar to astrocytes, maintain environment surrounding peripheral neuron
Sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia
Enteric glia

152
Q

Enteric glia

A

Also like astrocytes - repair intestinal epithelium

153
Q

Amitotic

A

Neurons are amitotic: Formed during embryonic development, most do not divide in adulthood
Begin as radial glia - neuron/glial progenitor cell
Two brain areas which generate new neurons in adulthood (neurogenesis) - hippocampus and subventricular zone (for olfaction)

154
Q

Clusters of cell bodies in CNS are …

A

Nuclei
Usually all have a similar function = division of labor

155
Q

Clusters of cell bodies in PNS are …

A

Ganglion

156
Q

Cell Body of neuron

A

Usual organelles
Neurofilaments: microtubules that extend into axon
Grey matter

157
Q

Dendrites

A

Antennae: receive info from other neurons
Contain dendritic spines-
Increases surface area of dendrites
Improves neurons ability to respond to small stimuli

158
Q

Axons

A

Carry electrical signals to another neuron/effector
Occasionally have collaterals - branch points in axon, usually one one or two

159
Q

Axon hillock

A

Where electrical signal is initiated

160
Q

Axon terminal

A

10,000 terminal branches
Synaptic knob (boutons): release neurotransmitters

161
Q

What is the inventory problem, in relation to neurons?

A

Release neurotransmitters from terminals
NTs are manufactured in cell body (RER)

162
Q

Axonal transport

A

Carry substances via neurofilaments along length of axon

163
Q

Anterograde vs retrograde transport

A

Anterograde: towards terminal
Vesicles containing neurotransmitters
Retrograde transport: back to soma, organelles to be recycled

164
Q

Multipolar neurons

A

99% of neurons
Many processes, 1 axon, multiple dendrites

165
Q

Bipolar neurons

A

1 axon and 1 dendrite
rare: eyes, ears, nose

166
Q

Unipolar neurons

A

Receive sensory information
One process in T-formation from cell body
Peripheral process in PNS: dendrites
- closely associated with specialized sensory cell
Central process in CNS: axon terminals
- Sensory info is relayed to CNS

167
Q

Afferent neuron

A

Usually unipolar
Transmits sensory info to CNS
Dendrites and soma are located outside CNS
- Dendrites associated with sensory receptor, soma = clustered with ganglion

Central process = much shorter
Axon terminal to enter CNS to relay sensory information to CNS neurons

168
Q

Interneuron

A

Soma and processes entirely in CNS
Most abundant: 99% of all neurons
Main job: shuttle information between sensory neurons, brain, and motor neurons
In between sensors and effectors

169
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carry information away from CNS out to effectors
- skeletal muscle, smooth muscle (GI) or glands
Cell body and part of axon in CBS
- axon terminal in periphery

170
Q

The bundling of axon in PNS vs CNS

A

PNS = afferent and efferent axons bundle together
- nerve = axons, blood vessels, connective tissue
CNS = afferent and efferent are kept separate
- tract

171
Q

What 2 factors determine conductance speed?

A

Myelination and diameter - both increase conductance speed

172
Q

How much faster does the signal go along axon with myelin?

A

Impulse moves up to 30 times faster.

173
Q

Multiple sclerosis

A

autoimmune = myelin is attacked by a person’s own antibodies
Scars left behind, blocks electrical impulses
Without input from motor neurons, muscles stop contracting and atrophy
fatal - diaphragm atrophies and stop contracting

174
Q

Fiber Group: A

A

Structure: large myelin
Function: motor neurons/pressure
Speed: 150 m/s

175
Q

Fiber Group: B

A

Structure: small myelin
Function: autonomic
Speed: 15 m/s

176
Q

Fiber Group: C

A

Structure: small; no myelin
Function: pain/painful heat
Speed: 1 m/s

177
Q

4 parts of brain

A

Cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum

178
Q

2 tissue types of brain?

A

White matter and grey matter

179
Q

White matter

A

Bundles of myelinated axons (tracts)
- information is transmitted

180
Q

Grey matter

A

Clusters of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei)
- information is processed or relayed

181
Q

Basic pattern of CNS tissue

A

tissue contained in dorsal body cavities surrounded by CSF
grey and white matter well organized into distinct region

182
Q

Cerebrum pattern of tissue

A

Outer layer of grey matter called a cortex and nuclei scattered in white matter called basal nuclei

183
Q

Gyri vs sulci

A

Gyri are elevations.
Sulci are grooves (deeper grooves are called fissures)

184
Q

Deepest groove of cerebrum

A

Longitudinal fissure (divides the cerebrum into left and right cerebral hemispheres)

185
Q

Central sulcus

A

Divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

186
Q

Lateral fissure

A

Separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe

187
Q

Parieto-occipital sulcus

A

separates the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe

188
Q

General Functions of the Cerebrum

A

Involved with cognitive and emotional processing (thinking)
Receives and interprets sensory inputs
Controls voluntary motor movements

189
Q

The superficial layer of the cerebrum

A

Cerebral cortex
Contains regions called functional reas

190
Q

3 kinds of functional areas are:

A

Motor, sensory, and association areas

191
Q

Motor areas

A

Control voluntary muscular movement
Example: primary motor cortex (pre central gyrus)

192
Q

Pre -central gyrus

A

Located anterior to central sulcus
Controls contraction of skeletal muscle
Specific regions of the precentral gyrus control specific muscles

193
Q

Sensory areas

A

Process sensory information
pressure, pain, temperature, body position, special senses
Example: primary somatic sensory cortex (post-central gyrus) and visual cortex

194
Q

Post-central gyrus

A

Located posterior of the central sulcus
Anterior parietal lobe
Receives sensory impulses (pain, pressure, and temperature) from sensory receptors located in the skin and skeletal muscle
Organized similar to pre-central gyrus

195
Q

Visual cortex

A

Located on occipital lobe
Receives impulses conveying visual information

196
Q

Association areas

A

Involved with integrative functions
Integrates sensory/motor areas with memory
Examples: somatic sensory association area

197
Q

Somatic sensory association area

A

Located posterior to the post-central gyrus
Involved with the ability to recognize an object by touch

198
Q

Broca’s area location and function

A

Located on left frontal lobe just superior to the lateral fissure
Controls muscles responsible for the production of speech (initiates speech)

199
Q

Wernicke’s area location and function

A

Located on left parietal lobe
Involved with understanding the formulating speech

200
Q

Diencephalon

A

Divided into 3 deep brain regions: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

201
Q

Thalamus

A

Relay station for most sensory impulses that reach the cerebral cortex
Sorts sensory info from all parts of the body, relays info to appropriate area of cortex
Somatosensory info: post-central gyrus
Visceral input (gut) and emotion from hypothalamus

202
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Located inferior to the thalamus
Controls and integrates activities of the ANS - master regulator of autonomic function, controls pituitary gland
Major role in regulating basic survival needs, feelings of rage, aggression, pain, pleasure
Water and food intake
Regulate body temperature

203
Q

Epithalamus

A

Contains the pineal gland
Size of a small pea, secretes melatonin (produced during darkness)
May contribute to the setting of the sleep-wake cycle

204
Q

Brain stem

A

Most primitive part of the brain: mostly control autonomic function
Contains 3 parts: midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
Functions: relay motor and sensory impulses (pain processing)
Involved with hearing and visual reflexes

205
Q

Pons

A

Contains nuclei related to cardiovascular function
Controls timing and depth of breathing
Coordinates non-breathing related airway behaviors
- coughing, sneezing, vomiting, hiccupping
relays information from cerebrum to the cerebellum

206
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

regulates heart rate and blood pressure
Contains respiratory rhythm generating neurons and several central chemoreceptors (sense CO2 levels)

207
Q

Cerebellum (old + new)

A

Old view: regulates coordinates skeletal muscle movements, posture, balance
New view: cognition, memory, emotion, breathing, control, learning

208
Q

Larger cavities for CSF

A

Ventricles
Roofs lined with clusters of ependymal cells (neuroglia) called choroid plexuses
Produce and circulate CSF

209
Q

Largest cavities for CSF are…

A

Lateral ventricles
Bilateral
Separated by septum pellucidum (thin membrane)

210
Q

Circulation of CSF…

A

CSF produced in lateral ventricles flows to another fluid pocket - third ventricle via interventricular foramen
CSF then flows through thin passageway called cerebral aqueduct to fourth ventricle
CSF exits via central canal - nourish spinal cord
Also exits 2 lateral apertures and one median aperture
- enters web like network of cavities surrounding cortex - subarachnoid

211
Q

Subarachnoid

A

Arachnoid mater
One of 3 protective layers surrounding cortex - meninges

212
Q

Meninges

A

Cover and protect CNS
Protect underlying blood vessels
Contain CSF (similar to plasma in ion composition)
3 layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

213
Q

Dura Mater

A

Outermost layer, extremely tough
“tough mother,” 2 layers of connective tissue: Layers separate in certain areas to form pockets of venous blood called dural venous sinuses

214
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

Thin layer of connective tissue on top of subarachnoid space
Web like connection anchoring membrane to brain tissue
CSF and larger arteries and veins located
Poorly protected - protection comes from dura mater

215
Q

Pia Mater

A

“gentle mother,” thin layer of connective tissue, plastic wrap surrounding every contour of brain, contains very small blood vessels

216
Q

Blood Brain Barrier

A

Internal protection of CNS
Neuronal activity is highly dependent on a constant pH and ion composition
Still needs to exchange nutrients with blood
To protect brain from normal fluctuations in blood - hormones, ion composition, nutrient levels
We have this barrier to regulate movement of these substances into CNS - regulates what enters CSF via transporters

217
Q

Deep Brain circulation

A

brain is highly vascular, requires a large and constant supply of blood and oxygen
Protective mechanism in case any large cerebral arteries get obstructed

218
Q

Circle of Willis

A

Cerebral Arterial Circle
Equalize pressure between anterior and posterior of brain

Anatomy (4 decks)

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