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research methods > exam 2 > Flashcards

exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

survey research

A

a quantitative and qualitative method with two important characteristics: measuring using self-reports and sampling

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1
Q

respondents

A

participants

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2
Q

large random samples are preferred because…

A

they provide the most accurate estimates of what is true in the population

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3
Q

most survey research…

A

is non-experimental, used to describe single variables and assess statistical relationships between variables BUT can be experimental

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4
Q

Model of the cognitive processes involved in responding to a survey item

A

question interpretation -> information retrieval -> judgment formation -> response formatting -> response editing

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5
Q

context effects

A

unintended influences on respondents’ answers - are not related to the content of the item but to the context in which the item appears: i.e. response options, item-order effect, type of questions, etc

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6
Q

item-order effect

A

when the order in which the items are presented affects people’s responses

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7
Q

open-ended items

A

ask questions and allow participants to answer in whatever way they choose

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8
Q

close-ended items

A

ask a question and provide a set of response options for participants to choose from

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9
Q

rating scale

A

an ordered set of response options on a typical rating scale ranges from 3 - 11, although five and seven are probably most common

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10
Q

likert scale

A

strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree

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11
Q

BRUSO

A

brief, relevant, unambiguous, specific, and objective

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12
Q

introduction serves two basic functions

A

encourage participants to participate in the survey, and establish informed consent

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13
Q

probability samples

A

occurs when a research can specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample

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14
Q

non-probability sampling

A

occurs when the research cannot specify these probabilities

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15
Q

convenience samples

A

studying individuals who happen to be nearby and willing to participate

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16
Q

snowball sampling

A

in which existing research participants help recruit additional participants for the study

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17
Q

quota samples

A

subgroups in the sample are recruited to be proportional to those subgroups in the population

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18
Q

self-selection samples

A

in which individuals choose to take part in the research on their own accord, without being approached by the researcher directly

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18
Q

sampling frame

A

essentially a list of all the members of the population form which to select the respondents

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18
Q

simple random sampling

A

each individual in the population ahs an equal probability of being selected for the sample

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18
Q

stratified random sampling

A

the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then random sample is taken from each sub

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18
Q

proportionate stratified random sampling

A

select a sample in which the proportion of respondents in each of various subgroups matches the proportion in the population

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18
Q

disproportionate stratified random sampling

A

can be used to sample extra respondents from particularly small subgroups

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19
Q

cluster sampling

A

larger clusters of individuals are randomly sampled and then individuals within each cluster are randomly sampled

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20
Q

how large does a survey need to be?

A

depends on level of confidence wanted and the practical constraint

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21
Q

sampling bias

A

when a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the entire population and therefore produces inaccurate results

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22
Q

non-response bias

A

if survey non-responders differ from survey responders in systematic ways

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23
Q

use verbal labels instead of

A

numerical labels

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24
Q

non-experimental research

A

research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable - simply measuring variable as they naturally occur
used for description or prediction/correlation

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25
Q

correlational research

A

measuring two variables with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables and then assess the relationship between them

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26
Q

observational research

A

focuses on making observations of behavior in a natural or laboratory setting without manipulating anything

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27
Q

cross-sectional studies

A

comparing two or more pre-existing groups of people

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28
Q

longitudinal studies

A

one group of people is followed over time as they age

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29
Q

cross-sequential studies

A

combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
smaller period of time during which they follow people in different age groups\

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30
Q

correlation is used when…

A

when the relationship is thought to not be causal, when it can not be studied as causal, to establish reliability and validity of measurement and if higher external validity is more important.

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31
Q

scatterplots can have

A

a positive or negative relationship

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32
Q

Pearson’s r

A

correlation coefficient; -1.00 - 1.00
.1 = small, .3 = medium, .5 = large
only good for linear relationships

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33
Q

restriction of range

A

Pearson’s r can be misleading when one or both of the variables have a limited range in the sample relative to the population

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34
Q

directionality problem

A

two variables can be statistically related because X causes Y or because Y causes X

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35
Q

third-variable problem

A

two variables might be related because a third variable causes both X and Y

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36
Q

spurious correlation

A

correlations that are a result of a third-variable are referred to as this

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37
Q

correlation matrix

A

showing the correlation between every possible pair of variables in the study

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38
Q

factor analysis

A

organizes the variables into a smaller number of clusters, such that they are strongly correlated within each cluster but weakly correlated between clusters - each cluster is then interpreted as multiple measures of the same underlying construct

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39
Q

statistical control of potential third variables

A

instead of controlling these variables through random assignment or by holding them constant as in an experiment the researcher measures them and includes them in the statistical analysis caused partial correlation

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40
Q

regression

A

a statistical technique that allows researchers to predict one variable given another
can also be used to describe more complex relationship between more than two variables

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41
Q

predictor vairable

A

variable that is used to make the prediction

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42
Q

outcome or criterion variable

A

variable being predicted

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43
Q

interviews

A

can be unstructured or structuredf

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44
Q

focus groups

A

small groups of people who participate together in interviews focused on a particular topic/issue

45
Q

grounded theory

A

researchers start with the data and develop a theory or an interpretation that is “grounded in” those data

46
Q

theoretical narrativce

A

an interpretation of the data in terms of the themes that they have identified

47
Q

mixed methods research

A

combining quantitative and qualitative
qualitative research for hypothesis generation and quantitative for hypothesis testing

48
Q

triangulation

A

use both quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously to study the same general questions and to compare the results

49
Q

observational research

A

used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded

50
Q

naturalistic observation

A

an observational method that involved observing peoples behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs

51
Q

disgusting naturalistic observation

A

make their observations as unobtrusively as possible so participants are not aware they are being studies

52
Q

undisguised naturalistic observation

A

participants are made aware of hte researcher presence and monitoring of htei rbehavior

53
Q

reactivity

A

when a measure changes participants’ behavior

54
Q

hawthorne effect

A

when people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would

55
Q

participant observation

A

researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying

56
Q

disguised participant observation

A

researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers

57
Q

undisguised participant observation

A

researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity as researchers to the group under investigation

58
Q

structured observation

A

making careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structures than the setting used in naturalistic or participant observation

59
Q

coding

A

clearly defining a set of target behaviors

60
Q

ase study

A

an in-depth examination of individual - sometimes completed on social units and events

61
Q

archival research

A

analyzing archival data that have already been collected for some other purpose

62
Q

content analysis

A

a family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data

63
Q

internal vs. external validity

A

experimental research = high in internal validity, quasi-experimental research = middle, correlational = low

64
Q

descriptive stats

A

to characterize or describe the characteristics of a sample
help summarize and display the data from a sample

65
Q

inferential stats

A

using sample data to make inferences or predictions about a population

66
Q

distribution

A

the way the scores are distributed across the levels of that variable

67
Q

frequency table

A

one way to display the distribution of a variable; can be using for quantitative or categorical data

68
Q

histogram

A

graphical display of a distribution; has shape; variables are listen in the ‘X’ axis and the frequency in the ‘Y’ axis

69
Q

unimodal

A

one peak

70
Q

bimodal

A

two distinct peaks

71
Q

shape can be

A

symmetrical or skewed

72
Q

negative skew

A

the ‘tail’ is pointing to the left

73
Q

positive skew

A

the ‘tail’ is pointing to the right

74
Q

outlier

A

an extreme score that is much higher or lower than the rest of the scores in the distribution - have to examine

75
Q

central tendency

A

its middle - mean, median, and mode

76
Q

variability

A

is the extent to which the scores vary around their central tendency

77
Q

standard deviation is

A

describes the average distance between the scores and the mean

78
Q

variance

A

mean of the squared differences; SD^2

79
Q

percentile rank

A

the percentage of scores in the distribution that are lower than that score

80
Q

z-score

A

the difference between that individual’s score and the mean of the distribution

81
Q

cohen’s d

A

the difference between the two means divided by the standard deviation
often referred to as a measure of effect size
0.80 = strong, 0.50 - medium, 0.20 = weak

82
Q

nonlinear relationship

A

a statistical relationship in which , as teh X variable increases, the Y variable does not increase or decrease at a constant rate

83
Q

restriction of range

A

when the data used to assess a statistical relationship includes a limited range of scores on either the X or Y variable, relative to the range of scores in the population - makes the relationship appear weaker than it actually is

84
Q

error bars

A

in bars and graphs and line graphs, vertical lines that show the amount of variability around the mean in each group or condition - typically extend upward and downward one standard error from the top of each bar or point

85
Q

standard error

A

the standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size - often used for error bars

86
Q

APA style

A

has rules for graphs, tables and text
smaller/simple results = text
bigger/complex results = graph

87
Q

line graph

A

a graph used to show the relationship between two quantitative variables. for each level of the X variable, there is a point representing the mean of the Y variable - the points are connected by lines

88
Q

scatterplot

A

a graph used to show the correlation between two quantitative variables. for each individual there is a point representing that individuals score on both variables

89
Q

correlation matrix

A

a table that shows the correlations among several variables

90
Q

raw data

A

data you collect that are not yet organized or analyzed

91
Q

data file

A

a computer file that contains data formatted for statistical analysis

92
Q

when preparing raw data

A

examine for error, organize, enter into spreadsheet program, check the reliability of the measures and effectiveness of manipulations, examine distributions and outliers.

93
Q

APA style

A

a set of guidelines for writing psychology and related fields
set by Publication Manual of the American Psychology Association

94
Q

title page

A

presents the article title and author names and affiliations

95
Q

abstract

A

summarizes the research; usually limited to 200 words, first line is not indented

96
Q

intro

A

describes previous research the rational for current study
three subsections; introduces the research question and why interesting, literature review, and closing restates question and comments on methods used to answer it

97
Q

method

A

describes how the study was conducted
participants subsection, a design and procedure subsection

98
Q

results

A

describes the results of the study

99
Q

discussion

A

summarized the study and discusses its implications

100
Q

references

A

lists the references cited throughout the article

101
Q

high-level style

A

second level of APA style - guidelines for the clear expression of ideas
needs to be formal and straightforward, avoid bias and offending

102
Q

low-level style

A

third level
all specific guidelines pertaining to spelling, grammar, references, and reference citations, numbers, etc.

103
Q

reference citation

A

to the work that idea originally appeared and a full reference to that work in the reference list
when two authors - no comma, when more there is a comma
Last name (year) - treat as names of people not as things
or (Last name, year)

104
Q

empirical research report

A

an article that presents the results of one or more new studies

105
Q

opening

A

a paragraph or two, introduces research question and explains why it is interesting

106
Q

literature review

A

describes relevant previous research on the topic and can several paragraph or pages
constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing

107
Q

closing

A

final paragraph or two
clear statement of main research and hypothesis and a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness

108
Q

methods

A

describe how you conducted your study and enough detail to replicate it

109
Q

results

A

present the main results of the study - does not include raw data - individual participants responses or scores but those should be saved
should be logically organized

110
Q

discussion

A

summary of research, theoretical implication, practical implications, limitations, suggestions for future research

111
Q

appendix

A

appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections

112
Q

review articles

A

summarize research on a particular topic without presenting new empirical results

113
Q

theoretical articles

A

review articles that present a new theory

114
Q

final manuscripts

A

prepared by the author in their final form with no intention of submitting them for publication elsewhere
might be formatted so easier to read and understand

115
Q

professional conferences

A

researchers in psychology share their research with each other

116
Q

oral presentations

A

10 - 20 minutes with time for questions, slides as visual aid, less formal than paper but still formal

117
Q

poster

A

presented during a one or two hour poster session that takes place in a large room at the conference site
as clear and simple as possible

research methods (4 decks)

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