exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
survey research
A
a quantitative and qualitative method with two important characteristics: measuring using self-reports and sampling
1
Q
respondents
A
participants
2
Q
large random samples are preferred because…
A
they provide the most accurate estimates of what is true in the population
3
Q
most survey research…
A
is non-experimental, used to describe single variables and assess statistical relationships between variables BUT can be experimental
4
Q
Model of the cognitive processes involved in responding to a survey item
A
question interpretation -> information retrieval -> judgment formation -> response formatting -> response editing
5
Q
context effects
A
unintended influences on respondents’ answers - are not related to the content of the item but to the context in which the item appears: i.e. response options, item-order effect, type of questions, etc
6
Q
item-order effect
A
when the order in which the items are presented affects people’s responses
7
Q
open-ended items
A
ask questions and allow participants to answer in whatever way they choose
8
Q
close-ended items
A
ask a question and provide a set of response options for participants to choose from
9
Q
rating scale
A
an ordered set of response options on a typical rating scale ranges from 3 - 11, although five and seven are probably most common
10
Q
likert scale
A
strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree
11
Q
BRUSO
A
brief, relevant, unambiguous, specific, and objective
12
Q
introduction serves two basic functions
A
encourage participants to participate in the survey, and establish informed consent
13
Q
probability samples
A
occurs when a research can specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample
14
Q
non-probability sampling
A
occurs when the research cannot specify these probabilities
15
Q
convenience samples
A
studying individuals who happen to be nearby and willing to participate
16
Q
snowball sampling
A
in which existing research participants help recruit additional participants for the study
17
Q
quota samples
A
subgroups in the sample are recruited to be proportional to those subgroups in the population
18
Q
self-selection samples
A
in which individuals choose to take part in the research on their own accord, without being approached by the researcher directly
18
Q
sampling frame
A
essentially a list of all the members of the population form which to select the respondents
18
Q
simple random sampling
A
each individual in the population ahs an equal probability of being selected for the sample
18
Q
stratified random sampling
A
the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then random sample is taken from each sub
18
Q
proportionate stratified random sampling
A
select a sample in which the proportion of respondents in each of various subgroups matches the proportion in the population
18
Q
disproportionate stratified random sampling
A
can be used to sample extra respondents from particularly small subgroups
19
cluster sampling
larger clusters of individuals are randomly sampled and then individuals within each cluster are randomly sampled
20
how large does a survey need to be?
depends on level of confidence wanted and the practical constraint
21
sampling bias
when a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the entire population and therefore produces inaccurate results
22
non-response bias
if survey non-responders differ from survey responders in systematic ways
23
use verbal labels instead of
numerical labels
24
non-experimental research
research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable - simply measuring variable as they naturally occur
used for description or prediction/correlation
25
correlational research
measuring two variables with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables and then assess the relationship between them
26
observational research
focuses on making observations of behavior in a natural or laboratory setting without manipulating anything
27
cross-sectional studies
comparing two or more pre-existing groups of people
28
longitudinal studies
one group of people is followed over time as they age
29
cross-sequential studies
combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
smaller period of time during which they follow people in different age groups\
30
correlation is used when...
when the relationship is thought to not be causal, when it can not be studied as causal, to establish reliability and validity of measurement and if higher external validity is more important.
31
scatterplots can have
a positive or negative relationship
32
Pearson's r
correlation coefficient; -1.00 - 1.00
.1 = small, .3 = medium, .5 = large
only good for linear relationships
33
restriction of range
Pearson's r can be misleading when one or both of the variables have a limited range in the sample relative to the population
34
directionality problem
two variables can be statistically related because X causes Y or because Y causes X
35
third-variable problem
two variables might be related because a third variable causes both X and Y
36
spurious correlation
correlations that are a result of a third-variable are referred to as this
37
correlation matrix
showing the correlation between every possible pair of variables in the study
38
factor analysis
organizes the variables into a smaller number of clusters, such that they are strongly correlated within each cluster but weakly correlated between clusters - each cluster is then interpreted as multiple measures of the same underlying construct
39
statistical control of potential third variables
instead of controlling these variables through random assignment or by holding them constant as in an experiment the researcher measures them and includes them in the statistical analysis caused partial correlation
40
regression
a statistical technique that allows researchers to predict one variable given another
can also be used to describe more complex relationship between more than two variables
41
predictor vairable
variable that is used to make the prediction
42
outcome or criterion variable
variable being predicted
43
interviews
can be unstructured or structuredf
44
focus groups
small groups of people who participate together in interviews focused on a particular topic/issue
45
grounded theory
researchers start with the data and develop a theory or an interpretation that is "grounded in" those data
46
theoretical narrativce
an interpretation of the data in terms of the themes that they have identified
47
mixed methods research
combining quantitative and qualitative
qualitative research for hypothesis generation and quantitative for hypothesis testing
48
triangulation
use both quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously to study the same general questions and to compare the results
49
observational research
used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded
50
naturalistic observation
an observational method that involved observing peoples behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs
51
disgusting naturalistic observation
make their observations as unobtrusively as possible so participants are not aware they are being studies
52
undisguised naturalistic observation
participants are made aware of hte researcher presence and monitoring of htei rbehavior
53
reactivity
when a measure changes participants' behavior
54
hawthorne effect
when people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would
55
participant observation
researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying
56
disguised participant observation
researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers
57
undisguised participant observation
researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity as researchers to the group under investigation
58
structured observation
making careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structures than the setting used in naturalistic or participant observation
59
coding
clearly defining a set of target behaviors
60
ase study
an in-depth examination of individual - sometimes completed on social units and events
61
archival research
analyzing archival data that have already been collected for some other purpose
62
content analysis
a family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data
63
internal vs. external validity
experimental research = high in internal validity, quasi-experimental research = middle, correlational = low
64
descriptive stats
to characterize or describe the characteristics of a sample
help summarize and display the data from a sample
65
inferential stats
using sample data to make inferences or predictions about a population
66
distribution
the way the scores are distributed across the levels of that variable
67
frequency table
one way to display the distribution of a variable; can be using for quantitative or categorical data
68
histogram
graphical display of a distribution; has shape; variables are listen in the 'X' axis and the frequency in the 'Y' axis
69
unimodal
one peak
70
bimodal
two distinct peaks
71
shape can be
symmetrical or skewed
72
negative skew
the 'tail' is pointing to the left
73
positive skew
the 'tail' is pointing to the right
74
outlier
an extreme score that is much higher or lower than the rest of the scores in the distribution - have to examine
75
central tendency
its middle - mean, median, and mode
76
variability
is the extent to which the scores vary around their central tendency
77
standard deviation is
describes the average distance between the scores and the mean
78
variance
mean of the squared differences; SD^2
79
percentile rank
the percentage of scores in the distribution that are lower than that score
80
z-score
the difference between that individual's score and the mean of the distribution
81
cohen's d
the difference between the two means divided by the standard deviation
often referred to as a measure of effect size
0.80 = strong, 0.50 - medium, 0.20 = weak
82
nonlinear relationship
a statistical relationship in which , as teh X variable increases, the Y variable does not increase or decrease at a constant rate
83
restriction of range
when the data used to assess a statistical relationship includes a limited range of scores on either the X or Y variable, relative to the range of scores in the population - makes the relationship appear weaker than it actually is
84
error bars
in bars and graphs and line graphs, vertical lines that show the amount of variability around the mean in each group or condition - typically extend upward and downward one standard error from the top of each bar or point
85
standard error
the standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size - often used for error bars
86
APA style
has rules for graphs, tables and text
smaller/simple results = text
bigger/complex results = graph
87
line graph
a graph used to show the relationship between two quantitative variables. for each level of the X variable, there is a point representing the mean of the Y variable - the points are connected by lines
88
scatterplot
a graph used to show the correlation between two quantitative variables. for each individual there is a point representing that individuals score on both variables
89
correlation matrix
a table that shows the correlations among several variables
90
raw data
data you collect that are not yet organized or analyzed
91
data file
a computer file that contains data formatted for statistical analysis
92
when preparing raw data
examine for error, organize, enter into spreadsheet program, check the reliability of the measures and effectiveness of manipulations, examine distributions and outliers.
93
APA style
a set of guidelines for writing psychology and related fields
set by Publication Manual of the American Psychology Association
94
title page
presents the article title and author names and affiliations
95
abstract
summarizes the research; usually limited to 200 words, first line is not indented
96
intro
describes previous research the rational for current study
three subsections; introduces the research question and why interesting, literature review, and closing restates question and comments on methods used to answer it
97
method
describes how the study was conducted
participants subsection, a design and procedure subsection
98
results
describes the results of the study
99
discussion
summarized the study and discusses its implications
100
references
lists the references cited throughout the article
101
high-level style
second level of APA style - guidelines for the clear expression of ideas
needs to be formal and straightforward, avoid bias and offending
102
low-level style
third level
all specific guidelines pertaining to spelling, grammar, references, and reference citations, numbers, etc.
103
reference citation
to the work that idea originally appeared and a full reference to that work in the reference list
when two authors - no comma, when more there is a comma
Last name (year) - treat as names of people not as things
or (Last name, year)
104
empirical research report
an article that presents the results of one or more new studies
105
opening
a paragraph or two, introduces research question and explains why it is interesting
106
literature review
describes relevant previous research on the topic and can several paragraph or pages
constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing
107
closing
final paragraph or two
clear statement of main research and hypothesis and a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness
108
methods
describe how you conducted your study and enough detail to replicate it
109
results
present the main results of the study - does not include raw data - individual participants responses or scores but those should be saved
should be logically organized
110
discussion
summary of research, theoretical implication, practical implications, limitations, suggestions for future research
111
appendix
appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections
112
review articles
summarize research on a particular topic without presenting new empirical results
113
theoretical articles
review articles that present a new theory
114
final manuscripts
prepared by the author in their final form with no intention of submitting them for publication elsewhere
might be formatted so easier to read and understand
115
professional conferences
researchers in psychology share their research with each other
116
oral presentations
10 - 20 minutes with time for questions, slides as visual aid, less formal than paper but still formal
117
poster
presented during a one or two hour poster session that takes place in a large room at the conference site
as clear and simple as possible
