Exam 2 Flashcards
exam 2
What are the two components of happiness?
- Cognitive: The belief that one’s life is good
- Affective: the Preponderance of pleasant emotions as well as the absence of negative emotions
How is happiness measured?
- Self-report scales
- Reports from friends/family
- Daily mood reports
What are some of the important
outcomes associated with happiness?
People who are happy are:
- more sociable, less hostile and abusive
- have better relationships
- more energetic, creative and productive
- Physically healthier
In general, are most Americans happy?
Yes around 80% report “Satisfied” or “very satisfied”
What is the association between relationships and life satisfaction?
Good Relationships are essential to happiness
What is the relation between faith and happiness?
People of faith tend to be much happier
What are some important outcomes associated with religiosity?
- less likely to become delinquent, divorced, substance abusers, suicidal
- more able to deal with crisis or loss
- physically healthier/live longer
What is the relation between work and life satisfaction?
They are strongly correlated.
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), what sort of work is most satisfying?
A match between skill and challenge
What is the relation between work challenge, ability and skill, and work satisfaction?
If work is too hard it can be overwhelming
If work is too easy it will be underwhelming
So there needs to be a balance to make it satisfying
What is the current view of the relation between wealth and happiness?
There is a linear relation between Wealth and happiness. More money, more happy
What sorts of goals or priorities are associated with higher levels of life satisfaction?
People with relationship and affiliation goals are happier than those with achievement/status/power/wealth goals
What does Campbell (1975) mean when he suggests that humans are on a “hedonic treadmill”?
We put forth great effort and believe we are achieving gains that will make us happy. However, in the long run, our levels of life satisfaction are often little affected by our gains and losses.
What are the two factors discussed in class that contribute to the stability of happiness over the long run?
- Major determinants of happiness remain the same over time
- People are resilient and adaptive.
What is the impact bias (text page 35)?
The tendency to overestimate the impact of emotion causing events
How does our tendency to underestimate our adaptability and resiliency contribute to the impact bias?
We overlook how we quickly we adapt to hard situations
How are theories in the social and behavioral sciences different from theories in the physical sciences?
They are Qualitative instead of quantitative
What makes a phenomena complex?
There are more components in play
They can’t be reduced to lower levels.
They change over time.
Not as general
Vauge
Why are theories in the social and behavioral sciences qualitative rather
than quantitative?
It is much more complex.
What is the hindsight bias?
What are three undesirable consequences of the hindsight bias?
The Tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen how something turned out.
“I knew it all along”
Blame decision makers
Intellectual arrogance
Overconfidence
How does the hindsight bias contribute to the perception that social psychology is obvious or commonsense?
We think that we know what’s going on. We believe that psychological findings are obvious and we would have predicted them in advanced.
What is an attitude?
The positive or negative evaluation or feeling associated with a person, object, idea, or event.
What is the accessibility of an attitude?
The ease with which the evaluation or feeling is activated.
What is an ambivalent attitude?
Having mixed feelings (both positive and negative feelings) towards objects and issues.
Why do people have attitudes? That is, what are the important functions of attitudes?
They are functional, their functions are:
1. Object appraisal (knowledge)
2. Social Adjustment
3. Value Expressive
4. Ego Defensive (enhance self esteem)
Why are social psychologists interested in attitudes?
Attitudes guide decisions and behavior
Why are the two central reasons why it important to understand attitudes and attitude change?
Behavior can predicts attitudes
Behavior can be influenced through attitude change
Describe the two conditioning processes through which attitudes may be formed and changed
Evaluative conditioning: attitude formation or change resulting from the mere co-occurrence of an object with a positively or negatively valenced object.
Operant conditioning: The strengthening/weakening of a response as a result of positive/negative consequences.
What is attitude polarization? That is, what is the effect of merely thinking about a liked or disliked attitude object? Why is it sometimes important to “step back” from the situation before making a decision?
Thinking about a liked/disliked object increases the extremity of an attitude.
Stepping back can help us put in in perspective.
Evaluations are not always based on knowledge of the good or bad qualities of objects. What are some other bases for evaluation other than information about the good or bad qualities of objects?
Operant & Evaluative Integration
We hold attitudes to foster a particular identity.
What is dissonance?
Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions
Under what conditions does attitude-discrepant behavior lead to dissonance?
Perceived Choice (we know we chose to engage in a behavior)
Unwanted Consequences (The behavior has unwanted consequences)
What are the three commonplace situations in which dissonance is induced
Induced compliance/insufficient justification
High suffering or effort
Decision making
What situation induces dissonance in compliance and insufficient justification
Situations where we are pressured and persuaded by others to act in an inconsistent manner.
What situations is common when dissonance is induced because of High cost and effort
High cost and effort: Situations in which people find themselves expending high effort or costs on an activity.
Understand the three commonplace situations in which dissonance is induced Decision Making
Decision making: In making difficult decisions, people must forgo desirable alternatives.
How do people often reduce the dissonance that results from making a hard choice?
People often reduce their dissonance about passing on desirable alternatives by developing more favorable attitudes about the chosen alternative and by derogating the non-chosen alternatives
What are some ways through which dissonance can be reduced?
- Change attitudes so that they are more consistent behavior
- Alter cognitions about behavior such that the behavior no longer seems so discrepant from attitudes
- Alter cognitions about degree of choice or responsibility
How do group initiations increase commitment to a group?
Enduring difficulties/embarrassments can motivate people that the group is worthwhile
According to your textbook, how does role playing affect attitudes (see text, page 89) How does saying something influence what we believe about it?
At first we are uneasy but over time that eases and it feels less forced especially if done publicly. SAYING IS BELIEVING
Identify some characteristics of the communicator or source that affect the likelihood of persuasion
Expertise
Trustworthiness
Attractiveness
Likeableness
Identify characteristics of the audience or recipient that affect the likelihood of persuasion.
Preexisting knowledge/attitudes
Self-esteem
Identify characteristics of the communication setting that affect the likelihood of persuasion.
Distractions
Pleasantness of setting
reputation/standing of setting
Identify characteristics of the message that affect the likelihood of persuasion.
Strength of argument
One vs two sided messages
What is a fear arousing message (see text, page 177) When does a fear arousing message work best?
A message that is effective by evoking negative emotions (Smoking ad)
It works best when it evokes fear AND gives a solution that is implementable.
When are one sided messages more effective than two sided messages?
One sided - When they don’t know about the message
Two sided - When they do know about the message
What is a primacy effect (see text, page 180)?
Information presented early is more persuasive
What is a recency effect (see text, page 180)?
Information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.
What is the “inoculation effect” or “attitude inoculation” (see text, page 189)?
Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.
What is forewarning and why does it diminish the likelihood of persuasion? Explain how distraction “disarms counterarguing” (see text, page 187).
Knowing that someone will try to persuade you, will make you come up with a solution before hearing an argument and sticking with your first solution
According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, persuasion may occur through a central route or a peripheral route. Distinguish these two routes to persuasion. Which route or process leads to more lasting attitude change?
Central Route is persuasion through the message. With facts and knowledge (longer lasting if recipient is paying attention).
Peripheral Route is persuasion not through the message but the display or communicator of the message
Identify “peripheral cues” that affect the likelihood of persuasion. What factors increase the likelihood of a central vs. peripheral route to persuasion?
Attractiveness of communicator
Social Status of communicator
Glamor of setting in message.
The amount of knowledge a recipient has of a message, forewarning, and facts about the knowledge
Define conformity.
Changes in belief, attitudes, or behavior resulting from real or imagined group pressure. In conformity, people abide by perceived norms.
What is anti-conformity? What is the irony of many instances of anti-conformity?
Changes in belief, attitudes, or behavior opposite to group norms as a result of real or imagined pressure
Why do people conform?
To gain approval or avoid disapproval
Distinguish normative from informational influence. What characteristics of the group affect the likelihood that a group member will conform?
NORM: conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ expectation, often to gain acceptance.
INFO: conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people.
What are the effects of unanimity vs. dissent on conformity?
People feel more independent in their choices when even just one person dissents.
How does the misperception of norms affect conformity?
If we over guess we will begin to do less
If we under guess we will begin to do more.
Distinguish descriptive norms from injunctive norms.
Desc: People’s perceptions of what other people do and believe
Inju: Beliefs about the social acceptableness of behaviors and attitudes. (perceived rules about what individuals should do and believe.
What is reactance and how does it affect the likelihood of conformity?
The motivation to protect or restore one’s autonomy or control
Why is suggestion often a more
effective influence strategy than directly telling a person what to do or believe?
suggestions help people arrive at conclusions on their own.
What factors were shown to affect the likelihood of obedience in studies using the Milgram paradigm?
Setting
Perceived legitimacy of authority
Immediacy of the authority figure
Proximity of the learner
Culture
Participants’ sense of personal responsibility
How does the depersonalization of a potential victim affect the likelihood of aggression and destructive obedience?
It is easier and more likely to be aggressive
What sorts of people obeyed the experimenter and administered high levels of shock in the Milgram experiment and similar studies?
Businessmen
Housewives
COllege Students
How did most people predict they would behave if they were participants in the Milgram experiment?
They thought they would be defy authority.
How did most members of the public who learned about the results of the study explain the destructive obedience of participants? What judgmental error is this?
Said the people were cruel, weak, sadistic, diemented, sick persons
(Fundamental Attribution error)
According to your instructor, what did the Milgram experiments tell us about human behavior?
We are much more evil than we think we are
What is self-presentation?
Strategies and behaviors people use to shape the impressions others form of them.
What are the two most fundamental goals and effects of self-presentation behavior?
- Impressions of others
- impressions of self
What is a carryover effect?
Instances where self-presentations behavior affects how persons perceive themselves
What is the self-presentational goal of ingratiation? What is the main difficulty confronting an ingratiator? Identify some common ingratiation tactics. What facilitates ingratiation?
To induce liking.
Problems come from sincerity
Imitation/conformity. Flattery. Modesty. Performing favors.
What is the self-presentational goal of self-promotion?
To appear competent and induce respect.
What are the two main difficulties confronting a self-promoter?
Immodesty (may seem like a show-off)
Credibility
Identify some specific self-promotion tactics?
Describing accomplishments/abilities/credentials/etc
Showing off - demonstrating abilities
Bask In Reflected Glory (BIRG)
What is BIRGing?
sharing the success of something you are associated with
What is self-handicapping?
enhancing the opportunity to avoid blame for future and accepting credit for success.
When are people especially likely to self-handicap?
- When we are uncertain of our ability
- When a task is important
- When the need to make a good impression is high
Understand the attributional benefits of self-handicapping when a person fails and when a person succeeds. What are the two main benefits of self-handicapping? What are the drawbacks or costs of self-handicapping?
Augmentation & Discounting Principles
Benefits: protect from failure, not have to try as hard in preperation
Costs: Increase likelihood of failure
-People don’t like it
- Lower performance assessments
Distinguish low self-monitors from high self-monitors. What factors guide the behavior of low self- monitors vs. high self-monitors?
LSM: Principled concept of self (value based)
HSM: Pragmatic concept of the self (role based)
Who is more likely to act in a manner consistent with their attitudes - a low
self-monitor or a high self-monitor?
Who is more likely to act the same way across different situations? Who
is more likely to be perceived as phony or insincere? Who is more likely to be perceived to be a “bull in a
china shop”?
HSM - monitor and adjust behavior according to the situation - more variability in how they act. More likely to be seen as phony or insincere
LSM - Act according to their beliefs and attitudes. More consistent in how they act across different situations. More like a bull in a china shop.
Explain how social influence techniques (3) commonly work and the general tendencies they exploit.
Tendency to respond in a mindless or automatic manner without considering all of the information.
Take advantage of chronic behavioral patterns and our reliance on heuristics.
Social influence: we sometimes have difficulty saying, “no”
What is the foot in the door technique? What is the process underlying this influence strategy?
- Obtain compliance w/ small request
- Followed by seperate, larger request
What is the lowball technique? What is the process underlying this influence strategy?
Car Salesman offers great deal on a car and you agree but later they add to the cost
Attitude Change comes after accepting the deal and you stick with it even when conditions change
What is the door in the face technique? What are the processes underlying this influence strategy?
- Make a large request to be rejected
- Follow with smaller request
How does public commitment affect attitudes and behavior?
increases the likelihood of compliance.
According to your instructor, how can a person generally reduce the likelihood of being taken advantage of by these social influence attempts?
Vigilance (being aware that other might try to manipulate)
Thoughtful Decision Making
Assertiveness (stand up for self.
What is a cult? What distinguishes a cult from other religious groups?
A new religious movement. Often thought to be extremist, incorrect, authoritarian, and unorthodox.
But it’s also relative
Why do people join cults? Who is most susceptible to cult involvement?
People join cults to fulfill needs such as:
religious/ideological meaning
Relationships, social support, or community
Status or Identity
Basic needs/services
Distinguish compliance from conversion or internalization. To what extent were the communist Chinese captors successful in bringing about real attitude change in their American prisoners? According to Schein (see pages 154-155), what brainwashing techniques tend to be the most successful in producing compliance (collaboration) and attitude change?
Conversion Internalization is real change in belief. The Chinese were able to achieve compliance but not conversion.
What techniques or practices are used in cult recruitment and indoctrination? Are these social influence techniques or practices specific to cults? To what extent are they utilized by most groups and organizations?
Targeting
Develop Relationships
Persuasion
Provide basic needs
Isolation
Attitude change (Behavior compliance)
Threats/intimidation
They are not cult specific.
They are used to get more people to follow a message.
Explain the role of behavioral commitment and the foot in the door technique in cult indoctrination?
By doing committed acts they convince themselves to be committed to the cult and want to keep participating
How does isolation from family and former friends increase cult involvement and commitment?
There aren’t outside sources to convince you to not do cultish things
Why are people concerned with their social status?
It affects how we are perceived which changes how much power we wield in groups.
What are the benefits of high status?
Having more influence in the groups we are in.
What is the relation between status and influence?
Higher status higher influence. Linear relationship
How does status affect how individuals are perceived?
The power people wield in groups affects how they perceive others and how they are perceived by others.
Who is more likely to be perceived in a stereotypic way – a high status or low status individual?
Low status - we pay less attention to them
How does status affect the perception of emotions and other nonverbal cues?
Higher rank express emotions more but lower rank are better at perceiving and responding to others emotions
What do people do to create the appearance of high status and dominance?
Dominance mimicry
-Self-perception
-Nonverbal expressions and postures
-Displaying the artifacts of status
According to Morris, how do would-be leaders with no real hope of leading fulfill their needs for dominance (see Morris 56-63)? That is, how do struggling status seekers who have little hope of attaining dominance deal with their frustrations (see Morris 63-78)? How does this affect the unity of societies? What do high status members do to counteract the imitations of low status persons?
Tribal specialization
Dominance mimicry
Makes more fragmented society
…
What are some negative consequences of our continual efforts to attain dominance or the appearance of dominance?
Depression
Suicide
Financial loss
Loss of relationships
Fragmented societies
