Exam 1 Flashcards
Define social psychology
Social psychology is a science that studies how situations influence us, with special attention to how people view and affect one another.
How does social psychology differ from personality psychology and sociology?
The focus on individuals and how they view and affect others.
What are the primary causes of interest and primary unit of analysis in social psychology?
PI: focuses on the impact of immediate social factors
UoA: Focuses on the behavior of individuals.
What are the two most common methods used in social psychological research?
Correlation and Experimental Research
What is random assignment and why is it the “great equalizer”?
Every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion. It eliminates all extraneous factors.
Why is it important to understand how people perceive events and form judgments?
To be more sympathetic and have a better understanding of where people are coming from
What are the two basic steps characterizing social judgment?
- Gather Info
- Draw Inference
What evidence serves as the basis for our impressions of others?
Behavior & Performance
Other’s Impressions & Observations
Physical Appearance
Group Membership
What is intuition?
The direct perception of truth, fact, etc. independent of any reasoning process; immediate apprehension
Do our impressions of people generally become more positive or more negative over time?
negative
How does information about the political, religious, and social attitudes of people generally affect our positive impressions of them?
Generally we will like the person less
What is the implication of this finding for how celebrities (and other persons trying to make a good impression) should present themselves to others?
The less the public knows the better (it is easier to make a negative impression when you let your differences show).
How do desires or preferences affect the gathering and interpretation of evidence?
We attend to info that we already believe or want to believe.
Why do people engage in wishful thinking?
Affect or emotion regulation.
What is a heuristic?
shortcut methods or “rules of thumb” used to make a judgment
What is the availability heuristic?
The likelihood of an event is based on the ease with which instances of the event are available from memory.
What is belief perseverance
Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.
According to the research by Lord, Ross, and Lepper, how do preexisting attitudes and beliefs affect our assessment and assimilation of new information and evidence?
We continue to believe what we were initially taught to believe.
What is judgmental overconfidence?*
We are overconfident in our judgement and don’t think about other options/opinions.
Explain how incompetence feeds overconfidence
It takes competence to recognize competence
What are two remedies for overconfidence?
- Prompt feedback
- Get people to think why they might be wrong
How do our current attitudes affect our recollections of our previous attitudes and behavior?
We reconstruct our memories based on our current views of the the subject.
Explain the discounting and augmentation principles.
Discounting: less influence is attributed to a factor if other plausible causes were present
Augmentation: more influence is attributed (you didn’t study but you passed).
How do internal attributions of behavior differ from external attributions of behavior?
Who/what get’s credit for the outcome of an event (good - internal, you get credit. bad - external, something elses fault).
When are people most likely to draw dispositional inferences about others?
When they aren’t freely choosing behavior, engaging in non-normal behavior, or engaged in socially undesirable behaviors.
Why does socially undesirable behavior lead to internal attributions and impact impressions more than socially desirable behavior?
Negative behavior is less frequent and easier to see.
When are people most likely to engage in attributional thinking?
When they don’t understand or there is something unusual going on.
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to underestimate your spot in a situation because of how others are doing.
Is the fundamental attribution error a universal phenomenon?
Yes but they are not as prevalent in other cultures.
What is the belief in a just world?
A belief that your actions have corresponding consequences and those consequences always occur.
How does “the Just world” belief affect attributions?
We assign consequences to actions/events and we expect these consequences to happen
Why do people want to believe in a just world?
People want to feel that they have control of their consequences and situations.
What are defensive attributions?
believing that when you succeed, you believe you did something different/better than those who didn’t succeed.
What evidence indicates that there is a small set of biologically determined universal emotional expressions?
comparative studies showing similar emotions with a single group as well as in cross-cultural studies.
What are three important functions of nonverbal expressions?
1.Communicate feelings and preferences
2. Social influence and control
3. To convey status or dominance
Are men or women more accurate in reading the nonverbal expressions of others?
Women
Why do women generally smile more, require less space, and engage in more eye contact during social interactions?
They are more submissive then males.
What is the relation between social status and the nonverbal behaviors that are commonly displayed by women and men?
Men are more commonly in higher status positions therefore they more commonly display more independent nonverbal ques.
Why aren’t people more effective in detecting deception?
There are multiple non-verbal cues and it’s hard to guess which cue is being manipulated.
What are the four basic processes that operate during deception (and examples)?
- High Sense of self-control (lack of spontaneity)
- Increased arousal (fidgeting, dilations, speech errors).
- Negative affect or emotion (Guilt, fear, less smiling/positivity)
- Heightened cognitive processing (Hesitation, pauses, appearance of thinking).
Which nonverbal channels are the “leakiest”?
Voice Quality and Bodily posture/movement.
What channel do people typically focus upon in attempting to detect deception?
Facial expressions
How does polygraph testing work (what is measured)?
Measures momentary changes in arousal (blood pleasure, respiration, perspiration).
How does polygraph testing work (what types of questions are asked)?
Biographical (irrelevant), Relevant (did you…), and Control (to see what it looks like when you are aroused).
How does polygraph testing work (What patterns of arousal are expected)?
If innocent - control questions will have a higher arousal
If guilty - relevant questions will have higher arousal
What are some of the problems associated with polygraph testing?
High False Positive results, fooling the test and stressed innocents and relaxed liars
How can a polygraph test be “beat”?
Artificial arousal/calm
How do ingroup perceptions differ from outgroup perceptions?
We are more ignorant to outgroups and generalize those in outgroups.
What is a stereotype
Stereotypes are expectations or beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of members of groups.
Are stereotypes always negative?
No
Are stereotypes always inaccurate?
No
What are the functions of stereotypes?
- Help us to size up situations/persons
- Help us make quick judgments/decisions.
What is a confirmation bias?
The tendency to judge or perceive events in a manner that is consistent with expectations
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy or behavior confirmation?
instances where people act toward others in ways that causes their expectations for others to come true.
What is stereotype threat?
Situational predicaments in which people perceive themselves to be at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group
What are two ways in which stereotype threat undermines performance?
- Stress
- Self-monitoring
- Suppressing unwanted thoughts/actions
What is institutional racism and how does it differ from individual acts of racism?
discrimination based on being a member of a particular group (typically as a minority or marginalized person).
How does modern racism differ from old-fashioned racism?
It is less more anonymous and hidden because it is a less social desirable opinion.
Why do surveys tend to underestimate the racial stereotypes and prejudice that prevail in society?
Because of the social Desirability Bias, people respond with how society would want them too even if that isn’t their personal beliefs.
Why are the racial stereotypes and prejudices held by European Americans more consequential or impactful than those held by minority groups?
Because European Americans are the majority and not only that they have much easier access to positions of power
- Identify some important causes of prejudice and stereotypes.
Psychological Determinants:
Ignorance, Dissimilarity/Unfamiliarity, Social identity, scapegoating
Social Determinants:
Social learning, Socio-economic standing/justification, competition.
According to social identity theory, what is responsible for ingroup favoritism?
It supports positive self-conception.
What is scapegoating or displacement?
The redirection of aggression to a substitute target
Who is most likely to be the victim of scapegoating?
Those who are: disliked, salient/visible, limited capacity to retaliate
Describe the vicious circle that exists between the social and economic status and positions of minorities, and stereotyping?
Stereotyping leads to discrimination which leads to lower perception of Socio-Economic status leading to this group being stereotyped and the cycle continues (fundamental distribution error).
- Why are racial stereotypes resistant to change?
Social Learning, Confirmation bias, Self-fulfilling prophecy, Benefits, Subtyping
In what ways do dominant group members benefit from racial stereotypes and prejudice?
Positive self-identity, economic advantage.
- What are the societal costs of racism, and other forms of prejudice and discrimination?
Undermine Integrity and efficacy of institutions, division/tension, Untapped talent.
How can we prevent stereotypes from influencing our judgments of individual persons?
Treat individuals as individuals, educate yourself, have more contact with individuals of this group, support policies/laws/programs to reduce inequality/discrimination
Under what conditions does contact reduce intergroup conflict?
When the two groups are working together toward a common goal
What are superordinate goals and why do they improve intergroup relations?
They are common goals, they help because they force us to broaden our concept of ‘we’
What is self-esteem?
your beliefs of self-evaluation/self-worth
What is self-efficacy?
A person’s overall belief about their
general competency or capabilities
How do Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Differ
they measure your thoughts on you but S-Esteem is how well you like yourself and S-Efficacy is how well you think you’d do something
What are the consequences of having strong feelings of self-efficacy?
Setting challenging goals, persistence, and productivity.
What are some of the negative outcomes or behaviors associated with low self-esteem?
less positive relationships, feelings of loneliness, depression, drug abuse, delinquency.
What is narcissism?
A personality trait characterized by grandiosity, a lack of empathy, and a preoccupation with self
What are some of the negative behaviors associated with persons who are high in both self-esteem and narcissism?
- Don’t take criticism well (lash out)
- constantly seek validation
- Huge sense of entitlement
- Care more about individual achievement
How is the process of perceiving the self different from the process of perceiving others?
We have more info on ourselves
we factor in self-serving biases
introspective access.
How is it similar?
We look at the same things in others as we do ourselves
What evidence serves as the basis for our impressions of ourselves?
Behavior/performance
Other peoples impressions
Physical appearance
Groups/roles/positions
In what ways is the self a social construction?
Through Reflective appraisal: the process of coming to know ourselves by how others view us
How do other people influence an individual’s sense of self?
Through Reflective-Appraisal
What is the process of self-perception?
Inferring traits, abilities, attitudes and other internal characteristics from our behavior
What is the overjustification effect?
The tendency for external rewards to undermine intrinsic interest
What is social comparison?
Evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others.
Who are we most likely to compare ourselves with?
Those we are similar to
Are we more likely to define ourselves in terms of the ways in which we are similar to others or different from others?
Different, we want to stand out
What is a self-enhancement bias?
Tendency to judge the behavior and performance of self favorably
What is the self-serving bias in attribution?
The tendency to attribute personal failure to situational (external) factors and success to (internal factors) self.
What are the positive illusions that are held by most people?
Attractiveness
Intelligence
Ability to get along with others
Driving
What is depressive realism?
The tendency for mildly depressed individuals to accurately estimate their abilities and personal control
Why do people harbor positive illusions about themselves? That is, why do positive illusions form?
- Self Enhancing Judgmental Biases -judge events and our behavior in a favorable way.
- Affect Regulation- to regulate our feelings
- Positive Feedback - mom said i’m handsome
- Self-fulfilling prophecy - to motivate us to be where we want to do.
In what ways are our positive self-assessments functional? That is, what are the benefits of holding positive illusions about the self?
More
Happiness
Popularity
Creativity
Productivity
Better:
Health
Relationships
Motivation
What is the planning fallacy?
Underestimating how long it will take to complete a task
- What tends to be more accurate: specific self-concepts or more global self-concepts?
Specific
Why are specific self-concepts generally more accurate than more global self-concepts?
Because it is more based on our personal knowledge on if we know how to do something or not
Which self-concepts generally guide specific task decisions?
Self-Efficacy
Open Ended What are three ways in which confidence or self-efficacy influences performance and goal attainment?
We set higher goals/take on bigger challenges
Put more effort to prepare
We are less anxious
Persistent
Open Ended Explain how expectations about the self may be self-fulfilling?
We act according to our expectations of the outcome. If we act like we are going to win, there is a higher chance we will win.
Open Ended Describe the vicious cycle of low self-efficacy.
Low Self-Esteem ->
Negative Expectations ->
Low effort/High Anxiety ->
Failure ->
Self-Blame ->
Repeat
- What are some possible costs of positive illusions?
We take on more than we can handle (Napoleon/Hitler)
We don’t adequately prepare
What is APE that coach Ron Rivera tells his player to regulate?
Attitude
Preparation
Effort
Why does the coach focus on APE rather than the abilities, opportunities, and circumstances that often determine performance?
We can control APE, not these other things
What is self-regulation?
Regulating the self (cognitions, emotions, behaviors ) to attain a goal.
Monitoring and self-awareness
Self-control
Emotion regulation
What is self-awareness?
The state of attending to the self
What important role does self-awareness play in the attainment of goals?
Helps us know what we need to do to attain a goal by assessing where we are and where the goal is
What do we do during a state of high self-awareness?
Attend our own behavior
think about what we should do
Under what conditions are people highly aware of themselves and their behavior?
When we aren’t attaining our goals (things aren’t going well).
When we learn new skills
When attention is drawn to us
Why is high self-awareness often an aversive state?
People are aware of the discrepancies between where they are and where their standard is.
How do people eliminate the negative emotions that often accompany a state of high self-awareness?
Change Behavior to align w/ their goals
Distract themselves
What is the impact of alcohol on self-awareness?
Alcohol decreases self-awareness, causing us to be distracted from our worries
Why do people often seek to reduce self-awareness?
To be more happy, there is a lot of bad in the world to focus on
What is the “spotlight effect”?
The belief that others are paying more attention to one’s appearance and behavior than they really are.
How is self-awareness affected by the spotlight effect?
We become more self-aware because we think others will more obviously see our faults. This leads to having a harder time attending to important tasks
Why is self-control often necessary for goal attainment?
Self-Control inhibits impulsive and emotional responses that can disrupt our attainment of a goal
According to research, what are some of the important consequences of high levels of self-control?
Better:
Health
Behavior
Achievement
How is self-control affected by resource availability?
They are positively related. If we have resources we are less likely to impulsively by stock of that resource (Opposite of shopping when hungry)
Explain how self-control is like a muscle
It takes practice and exercise to get good at it.
What are the two primary components or facets of emotions?
Emotional Response (emotional expressions and arousal)
Emotional Experience
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Perception of an event ->
Emotional somatic (bodily) response ->
Perception of somatic response is emotional experience
According to the James-Lange theory, which comes first – the emotional response (emotional expressions and autonomic nervous system activity) or emotional experience?
Emotional Somatic Response
What is the main implication of the James-Lange theory for emotion regulation?
Smile and you will be happy
The Damasio case study discussed in class focused on Eliot, the victim of brain cancer and a prefrontal lobotomy. What mental faculties of Eliot were intact following surgery?
The ability to reason
What faculties were damaged or impaired?
His ability to experience emotion (Limbic system)
According to Damasio, what facet of Eliot’s decision making ability was impaired?
He lacked emotional and motivational impetu
What does the study of Eliot suggest about the role of emotion in decision making and behavior?
emotion helps us prioritize our goals, motivations and responses
How do emotions guide our behavior and decisions?
Orients us toward a specific goal and particular response
How do moods differ from emotions?
Intensity
Specificity
What are the three basic ways in which mood affects decision making?
- Lowers the attention that is devoted to a decision
- Affect our orientation toward the environment
- Mood bias our assessments
Why do negative moods lead to superficial thinking and snap judgments?
We aren’t motivated to make a good decision (we don’t care)
Don’t have the strength to address a difficult issue
Why do positive moods lead to superficial thinking and snap judgments?
We don’t want something to interfere with our happiness
We are over-confident -> don’t take time to think about it.
How does mood affect our general orientation toward rewards and losses?
Good mood-> Approach Oriented/ Reward seeking (go for it)
Bad mood-> Avoidance Oriented/ Avoid losses
How and why do our moods affect our assessments of situations, persons, and choice alternatives?
Good moods assess people, relationships and self more favorably - Optimistic
Why? Priming - activates memory of mood we are in
In what ways are emotions disruptive?
Direct us toward goals that are less optimal in certain situations (too focused to see what’s going on)
High emotion limit abilities in complex reasoning (more impulsive)
How can people avoid making bad decisions when they are emotional?
Emotion Regulation
Recognize affects and make adjustments
Refrain from making decisions (Take a step back)
Distinguish between emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping.
EFC: cog & beh efforts to alter a stressful situation (study to prepare for stressful exam)
PFC: Cog & beh efforts to reduce distress produced by stressful situation (distract from stressful exam)
Why is emotion-focused coping often functional and necessary?
Helps us prepare for PFC’s
Too many stresses to face them all
Identify three processes through which emotion focused coping strategies work to regulate emotion.
Redirect attention
Cog reappraisal of situation/problem (Put us in a better mood)
Enhance self (hype session)
What is “opening up”?
An EFC, talking about a past trauma
What did the Penebaker (1990) study show about the consequences of opening up?
It is a healthy coping technique
Improves mental health
Provide two explanations for why opening up may be beneficial.
Inhibition relief: relief from the effort of suppressing/denying negative events
Understanding and reappraisal: opening up helps understand situation better
