exam #2 Flashcards
difficulties of definitions of sexuality/ labels
-makes people feel like they have to choose a label
-prevalence of non-heterosexual people depends on what your definition of orientation is
-each aspect of definition may not match with others
Kinsey’s idea of SO
-SO as a continuum
-acknowledges individual variability and that behavior, attraction, identity can change over
Kinsey scale and process
-gave people questions, put them on scale from completely heterosexual <-> completely homosexual
-X (outside of scale) represents asexual people (to get ppl who didn’t fit continue based on a lack of sexual behavior)
what is asexuality NOT
-celibacy
-sexual dysfunction or fear of sex
-a complete lack of erotic arousal
-an indication of inexperience sexually
-an indication that someone doesn’t masturbate or have sexual fantasies
what is asexuality?
-distinct sexual orientation
-lack of positive feelings after erotic arousal
-shares some bio features correlated with homosexuality (parallels of physiological changes)
difficulties of theories of SO
-no data to support choice, social transmission, or just not having a good heterosexual experience yet
psychoanalytic theory of SO
-Freud believed all humans polymorphously perverse (can derive sexual pleasure from anything, we all want pleasure)
-everyone is inherently bisexual, depending on process through psychosexual stages of development
-male homosexuality: fixation in phallic stage, or unresolved Oedipal complex due to overbearing mother and absentee father
biology and hormonal theories of SO: LeVay and problems (brain structure)
-Dif in brain structure between orientations
-homosexual men ~ heterosexual women
-problem: only used brains of dead people and inferred SO through records
-nearly all men died of AIDS
biology and hormone theory of SO: Savic and Lindstrom (brain symmetry)
-dif in brain symmetry and greater nerve connections in the amygdala
-gay men: more symmetry and activation on left side of amygdala like hetero women
-lesbian women have less symmetry and activation on right side of amygdala like hetero men
biology and hormone theories of SO: Hughes and Bremme (facial symmetry)
-facial symmetry less in homosexual people
biology and hormone theories of SO: Lalumiere, Blanchard, Zucker (handedness)
left handedness-homosexual orientation
biology and hormone theories of SO: Williams et al (finger lengths)
atypical finger-length ratios and homosexuality
birth order theory of SO (LeVay)
-fraternal birth order effect: for each older brother a man has, his odds of being gay increase by a third
Hershberger and twin studies theory
the more genetic material shared, the more likely to share SO
-higher rates of homosexuality for identical twins that fraternal twins
common theme of development of different SOs
exposure to higher than usual levels of androgens in utero manifests in SO
problems with heterosexual vs homosexual comparisons and research
treats them as two discrete classes, research only compares these two, not different types of sexualities on the spectrum
evolutionary theories of SO question and examples
homosexuality does not enhance reproductive success
-kin selection hypothesis
-alloparenting hypothesis
Kin selection hypothesis
some people don’t have offspring bc we need more caregivers
-“gay uncle hypothesis”
-only applies to heterosexual relations, not all heterosexual people have kids
alloparenting hypothesis
-women are more flexible in sexual attraction to men and women to compensate in case something happens to her kids’ father and/or reduce conflict among co-wives, and have sexual relations with them instead
-want to enhance reproductive success
examples of biopsychosocial theories of SO
-exotic becomes erotic
-sexual fluidity theory
exotic becomes erotic theory of SO
-people are born with a temperament that drives interests
-heterosexual: temperaments lead to sex-typical preferences and gender non-conformity, causes seeking out playmates with similar interests, and see themselves as different as the same sex
-non-heterosexual: gender non-conformity; sees themselves as different from children of opposite sex
-difference: exotic, transforming into sexual arousal during puberty
sexual fluidity theory
-SO has more biological component in males
-males hardwired for attraction, women more varied
-results may actually show that women are more likely to report fluid attraction than males
Baumeister and sex differences in expression
(women’s sexual Bx and effect of religion and culture)
-women’s sexual behaviors fluctuates more across time
-culture, education, and religion have a stronger effect on women’s sexuality
-greater discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors for women
-may be because religion, culture is more harsh on women
women and same-sex activity in same-sex settings
more likely to engage in same sex activity (ex: prison, schools)
swingers
-relationships with some form of openness
-same sex activity more common in women
nuns vs priests with celibacy
nuns more successful at keeping celibacy
female adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors vs males
females show more similarity in attitudes and behaviors to parents than males
heterosexual women and pupil dilation
show more pupil dilation in response to both male and female sexual imagery
-not lesbians
biology and sex differences in expression
plays no part in reasons for differences
problems with sex differences in expression
social and cultural factors may make males less likely to report their desires in self report
different types of common SO prejudice
-homophobia
-heterosexism (assumption that everyone is heterosexual and that’s the norm)
-biphobia
-monosexism (belief that exclusive attraction to one sex is the norm)
sexual double standard in views about homosexuality
men less likely to be labeled by others as bi
homophobic people and repressed same sex desire
may be a link of homophobic men and arousal when watching gay porn
-more hostility towards homosexual people the more “strongly” heterosexual people are
homosexuality in the DSM and who helped remove it
-listed as paraphilia until 1974
-Evelyn Hooker
reparative/ conversion therapy
pair heterosexual images with something positive, homosexual with negative (ex: pain)
sex, gender, sexuality, gender roles, gender stereotypes
-sex: assigned at birth
-gender: personal identity
-sexuality: behaviors
-gender roles: roles we are told to fill in society
-gender stereotypes: can be pos or neg
Money and theory of gender neutrality
everyone is born with tendencies to go both ways, and end result determined by envt
Brenda-David
-anatomical male had botched circumcision as baby, parents agreed to raise child as female and give feminizing hormones, but child grows up feeling like they’re a male
-suggests gender identity is wired in our brains before birth
another genetic feature that can influence gender
certain conditions/ disease of the chromosomes can cause differences in gender identity
caregiver/ peers influence on gender
-assumptions of gender in babies
-caregivers use higher voices and different words with a baby girl
-people interact, touch, play w babies differently based on gender (baby girls touched by strangers more)
-more sex segregate play -> more gender typical behaviors
religion and culture influence on gender
-traditional gender roles represented through genders of religious leaders
-most worlds religions have underlying tone of male dominance
-women way more likely to be religious (community aspect of religion)
-very few matriarchal cultures
-causes more sexual guilt of women, emphasizes the “right” way that sex looks
media and influence on gender
-rocky horror: dr frank-n-furter depicted as mad scientist, dresses as woman and has se with anything that moves, “sweet transvestite” from planet transsexual
medicine and influence on gender: hysteria
-hysterical neurosis
-hysteria -> uterus
-women are predisposed to mental and behavioral conditions
-associated with unwillingness to marry or inability to bear children
-treated with paroxysmal convulsions (giving her an orgasm)
-word still used today, removed from DSM in 1980
-emphasizes that men can cure this and “save” her
medicine and influence on gender: gender dysphoria
-“incongruence with one’s experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender”
-psychotherapy ineffective
-gender affirming surgery (adults) and puberty blocking drugs (adolescents)
-in DSM bc gender binary is norm
-possible causes: prenatal hormone exposure and potential genetic markers
deviance and influence on gender
-drag performances, non-binary/ gender queer all mix elements of gender
-causes strong reactions from others in fear of “indoctrination”
what are gender difference ideals influenced by and told through society as
-somewhat physiological
-heavily influenced by childhood
-heavily influenced by cultural norms (ex gender roles, dominant religious beliefs)
-influenced by media and representation seen
-medicalized normally and abnormally
-socially policed, with gender conformity rewarded and nonconformity punished
women societal differences in sexuality
-more nurturing and concerned for partner to fake orgasm, should not care about sex satisfaction just relationships
-submissive
-desire and have fewer partners than men
-still judge other women for their sexual behaviors
men gender differences in sexuality
-men who fit gender roles are more masculine, vice versa
-think about sex more than women
-like casual sex more
-orgasm more
norms of heterosexuality and compulsory reprosexuality
reproduction is core to sexuality and deviation from it is bad
-those with inclinations or experiences outside of these norms are negatively labeled, silenced, or subject to scrutiny
ideal v actual partner desires
ideal partners usually not important to people bc its not realistic
women and reported partners
desire and report fewer partners than men, may be due to social desirability
alcohol and sexual arousal
causes men to report increase in arousal and overinflated sexual expereinces
-seen as more normal for men to be more sexual when drunk
men vs women in categorization of sexual experiences
-even one same sex experience for men made them categorized as gay
-women mainly retained categorization of heterosexual, even after repeat of same sex encounters
-women in same sex encounters considered more feminine, but men in same sex experiences considered less masculine
-men judged more harshly for same-sex behaviors
prototype for sexual behaviors
white, cisgender, heterosexual women and men
stereotypes for Latinos
men: hypersexual
women: spicy, curvy
stereotypes for Asian people
men: boring, weak
women: innocent, submissive, young
stereotypes for Black people
men: dominant, aggressive
women: bossy or target of aggression
stereotypes for white people
men and women: can do no wrong
how are racial stereotypes reinforced
through porn
sexual scripts of gender, race, sexuality
radicalized, gender stereotypes seen through porn and how people describe their sex lives
SO stereotypes
-“sexually inverted” attributes of the opposite sex
-lesbians: agents, dominant
-gay men: feminine, communal, highly sexual
bottom/top/vers
active v passive
sexualization of lesbian and bisexual women
-usually just of femme people
-seen as a challenge for men to “convert” or a helpless creature that needs to be taught
-seen as a phase or taken less seriously than MSM