Exam #1 Flashcards
What were the conclusions of Freud (Some Psychological Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes) regarding young boys?
-biologically driven Oedipus complex in boys: long for mother and jealous of father for having sexual relationships
-Feminine attitude: believed boys show bisexual orientation at this phase and want to replace their mother
-boys who wet the bed have sexual desires and may develop these by overhearing parents talk about sex
-boys don’t show pleasure or interest in girls’ genital areas until they experience the threat of castration (losing genitals due to not having children) and they are persuaded to have heterosexual relationships
What were the conclusions of Freud (Some Psychological Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes) regarding young girls?
-electra complex: less distinguishable in girls, but believed they continuously long for their father and want to have children with him
-girls show desire instantly when they see a boy’s genital region, and when they recognize the penis as large and “superior”, they develop envy
-girls only lose penis envy when they’re narcissistic or in a state of psychosis
-at the end of their childhood, girls develop the desire to have children and this is where their true transformation into a woman is
What are some limitations and obscurities about the Freud (Some Psychological Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes) article?
-little info or theories before on the sexuality of females, and Freud assumed it to be analogous to males
-none of his theories can actually be observed, and wouldn’t be ethical to try
What is social learning theory, outlined in Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality)?
-all repeated sexual behaviors have motives behind them, all behaviors have some reward the person is hoping to get
-rewards for the behavior reinforce the behavior
-differences in personalities change the behaviors in people
How does Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality) explain the development of sexuality?
-development: a person learns about sexual relationships and sexual pleasure, similar to how people learn aggression (Bobo Doll experiment), instead of having a biological drive to act a certain way sexually. certain behaviors may be reinforced throughout a person’s life and the consumption of media showing behaviors may make people believe that they should act that way to fit in with society
How does Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality) explain adolescent sexuality and contraception?
-adolescents may engage in sexual behavior when they don’t have any external factors to stop them, or out of rebellion for the forces they do have
-lack of education promotes these behaviors and prevents teens from speaking up about using contraception, due to societal stigma
-teens don’t see enough models of safe sex and contraception use, so they don’t see it as the norm and repeat the behavior
-difficult to disassociate the pleasure from sex and negatively reinforce the behavior
How does Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality) explain health related sexual behavior?
-lack of education and stigma can prevent people from using protection
-if people watch others go against norms and successfully use protection, then education can spread and sexually spread diseases can be less common
-stigma is learned throughout someone’s life and is difficult to break free from
How does Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality) explain coercive sexual behavior?
-witnessing other aggressive behaviors (abusive parental relationships) can make people more likely to repeat the behaviors in their own relationships
-experiencing coercive sexual behavior makes someone more likely to repeat the behavior
-having sexually aggressive peers makes males more likely be aggressive in their relationships
What are some limitations and unique qualities expressed in Hogben (Using Social Learning Theory to Explain Individual Differences in Human Sexuality) ?
-male coercive behavior is more commonly studied than female
-can manipulate social learning easily (ex: changing aggression levels and seeing how people act afterward), but can’t measure exactly what is causing the change in behavior and prove that it’s because of the variable they changed or something else
-hard to rule out other explanations
-unethical to manipulate certain variables (ex: sexual abuse)
What were the main findings in the van Anders, Goldey, and Bell (Measurement of Testosterone in Human Sexuality Research: Methodological Considerations)? (ie. how do they explain human sexuality)
-T levels in a person can change during different social events over a person’s life, and can be learned over time
-using T to define a person’s sexual behavior may not be a consistent measure
-lower T levels in females (and higher levels in males) linked to:
-more frequent sexual activity (people in long term relationships)
-people in single relationships
-higher levels in people with:
-more complicated relationships (ex: cheating, polygamy
-levels can change throughout the seasons, through menstrual cycle (low during menstruation, rises during follicular phase)
What are the pros, limitations, and concerns in van Anders, Goldey, and Bell (Measurement of Testosterone in Human Sexuality Research: Methodological Considerations)
-T research typically involves males, not females
-sexual minorities aren’t often included
-pros: when people self report their sexual feelings, it can help decrease stigma; testing can be done in different ways to accommodate certain people
-con: history of researchers using the data to “fix” homosexual behaviors
What does the Dixson, Duncan, and Dixson (The Role of Breast Size and Areolar Pigmentation in Perceptions of Women’s Sexual Attractiveness, Reproductive Health, Sexual Maturity, Maternal Nurturing Abilities, and Age) article say about the preferences of people regarding breast size and areola pigmentation in terms of attractiveness, reproductive health, maturity, and maternal nurturing abilities, and why do they believe these views exist?
-larger breast size= more attractive, healthy, mature, and nurturing
-combined: the highest ratings were for large breasts with dark areola
-males may have evolved to select for women with these traits bc they’re supposed to develop during puberty, signifying a woman “more capable” of reproducing
What are the issues with the findings in Dixson, Duncan, and Dixson (The Role of Breast Size and Areolar Pigmentation in Perceptions of Women’s Sexual Attractiveness, Reproductive Health, Sexual Maturity, Maternal Nurturing Abilities, and Age), and what does this show about sexuality?
-a female’s body is only seen for the reproduction capabilities, and males don’t account for differences in bodies, they just assume that one type is the best
-even though larger breasts and dark areola may not have any scientific benefits, the traits are still seen as favorable
-may be some limitations with using computer generated images, as these images can be rated higher by men and they may see the images as new and untouched
What are the main findings of Lever, Frederick, and Peplau (Does Size Matter? Men’s and Women’s Views on Penis Size Across the Lifespan), and how do these findings relate to sexuality?
-a little over half of the males were satisfied with their size, and the majority of those who were not wished that their penis size was larger
-men who were dissatisfied with their size were less likely to undress in front of partner, had lower body image and self-attractiveness ratings, and were usually shorter and heavier
-men who were satisfied were usually taller and thinner, and had better body image
-most women were satisfied with their partner’s size, even though many males were not
-penis size is much more important to males than it is for their partners
-modern media depicts unrealistic penis sizes and may cause men to believe that’s normal
How does the Séguin, Rodrigue, & Lavigne (Consuming Ecstasy: Representations of Male and Female Orgasm in Mainstream Pornography) show the sex differences in orgasm and sex through pornography, and what does this imply about sexuality?
-males: most frequently during self-stimulation, faces usually not shown on camera, ejaculation was indicator of orgasm
-females: during penetration, used exaggerated facial and vocal cues as indicator
-females need partner to have pleasurable sex, and it’s easier for males to have an orgasm
-most females actually can’t orgasm through penetration, and clitoral stimulation is more effective
-puts more pressure on a female’s partner to know how to give her pleasure, and media doesn’t show the proper ways to do it
-makes women feel like they have to perform during sex, even if it isn’t giving them pleasure
What are some of the strengths and limitations of the Séguin, Rodrigue, & Lavigne (Consuming Ecstasy: Representations of Male and Female Orgasm in Mainstream Pornography) article?
-pros: explores male and female orgasm and takes physiological research of orgasm indicators into account
-cons: a “normal sexual response” is different for everyone and is dictated by culture, and can change over time; the majority of people in the videos were white, and the videos were targeted towards a heterosexual male audience, so orgasm and sex may be represented differently if the videos target other audiences
What were the findings of the Busby et al. (Challenging the Standard Model of Sexual Response: Evidence of a Variable Male Sexual Response Cycle) and how do these relate to porn?
-desire levels usually match arousal levels
-males with high desire had high arousal in most recent sexual experience
-similar pattern in females
-males have less arousal at the end of sex than women do
-sexual experiences don’t look the same for all males, and having high arousal doesn’t always mean good sex
-males depicted in porn as having long sexual encounters and getting satisfaction through multiple orgasms, even though most men with high arousal didn’t have the longest durations of sex
-males always expected to last long, but this isn’t possible or enjoyable for everyone
What were some limitations and strengths shown in the Busby et al. (Challenging the Standard Model of Sexual Response: Evidence of a Variable Male Sexual Response Cycle) article?
-limits: sample wasn’t very diverse, didn’t include different racial/ethnic or sexual minority groups; only asked about most recent experiences, and memory might not have been clear, experiences may be different over time
-pros: many differences across variables show a lot of differences (proving that the experience is different for everyone), some diversity in relationship status, education, orientation
What are some implications about sex differences in orgasm difficulties as stated in the Dienberg et al. (Women’s Orgasm and Its Relationship with Sexual Satisfaction and Well‐being)?
-males: seen as more important to orgasm in order to ejaculate (and reproduce), and believed it’s more important for males to have a good sexual experience so they can orgasm
-females: seen as more complicated and less important as it doesn’t lead to anything for reproduction, some people believe females don’t need to orgasm and shouldn’t be worried if they can’t
What are some of the benefits regarding sexual pleasure, satisfaction, and desire for woman’s orgasm, as stated in the Dienberg et al. (Women’s Orgasm and Its Relationship with Sexual Satisfaction and Well‐being) article?
-greater amount of pleasure, shows that the female is enjoying the experience
-better satisfaction in a female’s relationship with their partner, suggesting that better communication and a stronger relationship can occur between the two
-increases the female’s desire for sex, makes them more likely to engage again
-may be more likely to occur in queer contexts/ using different methods
What were the main findings of the Dienberg et al. (Does Clitoral Knowledge Translate into Orgasm? The Interplay Between Clitoral Knowledge, Gendered Sexual Scripts, and Orgasm Experience) article, and what do these say about sex?
-a higher amount of clitoral knowledge was associated with more orgasms and pleasure during masturbation, but not partnered sex
-more clitoral knowledge was associated with females with an upper level degree
-males with more clitoral knowledge had less orgasms
-partners may be more focused on giving the female pleasure and not know how to pleasure both at the same time
-females may also be less likely to speak up about their knowledge during sex due to societal norms, ad even if they have a high level of knowledge, they might not be listened to and given what they desire
What were the limitations of the Dienberg et al. (Does Clitoral Knowledge Translate into Orgasm? The Interplay Between Clitoral Knowledge, Gendered Sexual Scripts, and Orgasm Experience) article?
-little diversity in orientations
-other factors (ex: politics, religion) may go into someone having lots or little clitoral knowledge
What is the psychoanalytic theory, and who is the founder?
-Freud
-behavior is driven by positively by libido and negatively by Thanatos
-we do things that make us feel good, avoid what makes us feel bad
What are the id, ego, and superego?
-id: impulse, no morality
-ego: conscious, morals, driven by culture
-superego: negotiator between two
What is psychosexual development and what theory is it part of?
-stages of discovery of different zones of pleasure in the body, develops at different ages and life events
-people can get stuck at certain stages
-psychoanalytic theory
What do levels of penis envy suggest
greater=more interest in sex
What is the cognitive behavioral theory consist of and who was a founder? How does this relate to sexuality?
-Pavlov
-conditioning
-may explain fetish development
classical conditioning and relation to sexuality
classical conditioning: bell=salivation, we have innate behaviors that make the result happen
-touching genitals leads to arousal, and non-sexual trigger paired with touching then leads to arousal
operant conditioning and sexuality
-reinforcement or punishment: can lead to more or less frequent Bx
-sexual dysfunction leads to shame, which can cause less desire to engage in Bx
-positive partnered experiences leads to emotional connection, which causes want to engage
-aversive conditioning can’t always change bad behaviors
social learning theories and examples
-behaviors acquired through observation of others’ activities and outcome
-ex: if someone gets popular from being sexually active, then others will want to do that
-ex: porn doesn’t always depict real life and appropriateness, but may be viewed as normal Bx
-seeing others not use protection may lead to risky sexual behaviors
personality theories
-big 5 (openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism) may lead to a pattern of behavior
-erotophilia/ erotophobia: people like or dislike stress
-some people may be dopamine and sensation seeking
sociosexuality
willingness to engage in sex without commitment or emotional connection
-may be caused by the dark tetrad
evolutionary theories of sexuality
ppl have inherent motivation to produce as many offspring as possible, leads to sexual behaviors and partner selection
sexual strategies theory and its problems
approach to mating based on parental investment
-women select partners who will stick around and can provide
-men are less selective and desire a greater number of young, attractive partners
-only applies to heterosexuality, can’t explain casual sex
biopsychosocial perspective
psych causes or drives sexual behaviors and is a product of sexual behavior
history of sexology overview
1st-case studies by Freud and others
2nd-experiments and lab work
-during times of negative attitudes to discussions of sex
-researchers risked losing careers and had no funding
-participants too embarrassed to participate
-led to secretive, unethical research
3rd- 1994: national survey of sexual behavior in response to HIV concerns
Kinsey research
-taught course on marriage
-later traveled to interview thousands of people about their sex lives
-published books that caused controversy and scandal
-wanted to understand sexual stimuli
-filmed various sexual activities
Masters and Johnson research
-did early lab research
-later interviewed sex workers, filmed sexual activity, made sex toy with camera to observe changes in vagina during arousal and orgasm
-published research that was called pornographic
different ways to study sexuality
-surveys: can be biased or dishonest
-direct observation: penile strain gauge to measure changes during sex, vaginal photoplethysmography to measure blood pressure changes, thermal imaging, fMRI
-case studies
-experimental methods (cortisol, testosterone)
what is the most effective way to study sexuality
a combo of different measures
Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade Study
-why are some men motivated to have anonymous sexual encounters with other men in public restrooms?
-people put on lookout in restrooms, recorded license plate #s, showed up to their homes later and interviewed for “unrelated” study
-found more than half of men were married to women
-published results led to decrease in policy investigating and prosecuting tearoom sex
current problems and views of physiology and sexuality
-lack of info prevents knowledge of what is and isn’t normal
-can impact view of health, anxiety and body image, sexual dysfunction, relationship problems, sexual satisfaction of self and others
-common to discuss in sex therapy for dysfunction and satisfaction issues, but not really anywhere else
how are male reproductive parts shown through history and culture?
-art, sculpture
-used in language and slang
-science: most people know more about female
-signs of power
fascinum
sig of prestige for Roman boys, wore tiny replica of erect penis
physiology of penis
-root (base), shaft (bulk), glans (end)
-variety in pubic hair, curvature, length
-some potential size trends based on race, but not significantly different
sperm displacement theory
humans don’t need a bone in the penis, the glans suctions the sperm in
median length and circumference of penis
length: 5.2 - 3.6
circumference: 3.7- 4.6
circumcision psych
-removal of foreskin
-pros myths: reduce risk of UTIs and STIs, inc pleasure
-cons myths: destroys nerve endings
-argued as genital mutilation, consent difficulties
phimosis
condition where foreskin is too tight, can be potentially treated with circumcision
