Exam 2 Flashcards
how are psychoactive drugs classified?
- chemical nature
- effects they produce
- plant source
problems with classifying psychoactives
- some have combination of effects (e.g. stimulant + hallucinogen)
- chemically similar substances can also produce very different effects
narcotics
confusing term–opium products or any habit-forming illicit drug
psychoactive drug examples from class
- ayahuasca: in S. American rituals, but overused by Westerners
- belladonna: dialates pupils
4 main psychoactive classifications by effect
- stimulants/convulsants
- narcotic analgesics: mainly opiates, block ability to sense pain
- psychedelics: norepinepherine and seratonin mimics
- antipsychotics: deplete norepinepherine
types of stimulants + their mechanisms
- cocaine: block norepinepherine reuptake
- caffeine: activate intracellular metabolism
- nicotine: stimulate acetylcholine receptors
chemical properties of psychoactives
- almost all (except THC) are alkaloids (amide or amine)
- have to enter bloodstream and be transported to sites where they exert effects
how do people get high from psychoactives?
- taken orally, injected, or passed through a membrane
- blood circulates it
- acts on a target site
- broken down by liver and excreted by kidneys (why there’s an initial rush and then it wears off)
mode of action for psychoactives (general)
- some act on only CNS, some also act on PNS
- all act by altering normal interactions between neurons and NTs at synapses
- psychoactives bind to receptor sites of neurons and either mimic or inhibit NTs
5 main types of NT that psychoactives mimic/inhibit
- acetylcholine
- norepinepherine
- serotonin
- dopamine
- neuropeptides
agonists and antagonists
- agonists: mimic a NT
- antagonist: inhibit a NT
use of hallucinogens for Shamanism
- shamanism: history of healing, divination, and theatrical performance based on natural magic
- shamans use hallucinogens on themselves to have healing visions; heal people supernaturally
- differ from healers, who use plant medicinals (more similar to Western medicine principals)
use of iboga in rituals
- Iboga used in Gabon (Bwiti religion) for shaman initiations
- initiations ritualistic and can be painful
- other elements of initiation include drumming, breath manipulation, fasting, theatrical illusions, and abstinence
hallucinogen plants we are primarily discussing
- marijuana
- opium
- tobacco
- coca
- peyote
marijuana origin and history
- originated in central and S. Asia
- seeds dispersed by birds, wind, water, and animals
- used traditionally during mourning
different varieties of marijuana
- hemp: grown close together; upward growth better for fibers
- higher THC marijuana: grown more spaced out with lots of light, more resin produced by females
- sinsemella: unfertilized female flowers, most resin!!
history of marijuana in the US
- introduced to US through S. America and caribbean (1920s)
- appreciation rose during prohibition era
- popular in jazz music, abstract art
THC
- tetrahydro cannibinol; main psychodelic in resin of marijuana
- mimics anandamide, a NT that helps you forget bad memories
- activates receptors in hippocampus and frontal cortex
history of growing marijuana in US
- US sprayed paraquat in Mexican fields, so people turned to domestic-grown
- government crackdown meant growers turned to indoors
domestication of marijuana
- tall species (Sativa) crossbred with low species (Indica)
- precise nutrients, water, and tons of light are used for plants indoors–90 day life cycle!
- males kept out of grow room to trick females into producing more resin!
ways different cultures use marijuana
- Bhang: milklike marijuana drink
- Ganja: flowers rolled to smoke
- Hashish: concentrated resin used in hookahs
opium compounds
- 20+ alkaloids in latex of poppy fruits (called opium)
- morphine is most abundant; first isolated in 1803 (10x stronger than opium)
controversy over opium
- addiction to opium noticed during civil war; led to creation of heroin synthetic as a cough syrup
- 1914 law against opiates for non-medical purposes
history of opium
- fruit first collected in Sumeria (mesopotamia) in 3000 BC
- Dutch brought it to Taiwan
- Boxer Wars: British began to dominate trade to China
- now grown in the Golden Triangle (SE Asia) and Golden Crescent (Afghanistan and Pakistan)
traditional uses of Coca
- used by Incas (legal to grow in S. America)
- “coca and oca” – chewed with lime!
compounds in the Coca plant
- cocaine isolated from latex in 1860; originally recommended to treat morphine and alcohol addiction
- coke: hydrochlorate salt
- crack: mixed with baking soda and boiling water
how does cocaine affect the body?
- blocks reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine
- excessive use results in depression and paranoia
history of tobacco
- from Americas; traditionally used by native tribes (“peace pipes”)
- Columbus brought it back to Spain
- British promoted more cultivation in Virginia colony
tobacco farming today
highly controlled!
- optimal fertilizer and spacing
- flowers and stalks removed
- cured and additives added
tobacco compounds
- nicotine: nervous system stimulant!
timeline of middle ages
- began 450-500 AD with fall of Roman Empire
- ended 1450-1500 AD with invention of printing press, guns, and discovery of America
three sources of medieval medicine
- classical, folk and christian medicine all interwoven
- medicine was a combination of science, magic, and religion
principles of classical medicine
- combination of science and philosophy (Galen)
- 4 natural humors: blood, plegm, yellow bile, black bile
- imbalance of humors caused disease
notable figures of classical medicine
- Hippocrates: Greek “father of medicine”
- Dioscorides: herbalist who wrote Materica Medica (>600 medical herbs described)
- Galen: doctor for gladiators and Roman Emperor; combined practical medicine of Hippocrates with philosophy of Aristotle
what was folk medicine?
- traditional celtic, germanic, and slavic cures
- combined herbs and magic (craft, not science)
principles of folk medicine
- medicine came from the Gods (Odin)
- “sympathy:” similarity implied connection
- elves and goblins caused disease
what was christian medicine?
- based on Christian teachings
- clerics (monks and nuns) were healers
- combined herbs and prayer
principles of Christian medicine
- nature was created by God for a purpose, and he placed cures of all diseases in the natural world
- disease is the result of the fall of man (or from demons)
texts in medieval medicine
- old english herbal: written in England ~1000 AD; 185 plants + medical uses based on ancient sources like Diascorites
- anglo-saxon leechbooks: medical texts or spellbooks (leech means doctor or wizard); organized from top to bottom of body
advancements in intellectual culture during the high middle ages (1000-1300)
- new knowledge from contact with Islamic world
- Hippocrates, Diasocrates, and Galen’s works translated into latin
- increased literacy and book availability
- medical universities established, but limited to Christian men
notable figures during high middle ages
- Constantine the African: Muslim merchant who translated works by Hippocrates, Galen, etc
- Hildegard of Bingen: German abbess, intellectual, mystic, herbalist
- Paracelsus: doctor without formal training who had a radical approach called alchemical medicine (plant extracts used, not just whole plants)
characteristics of traditional healers
- personal relationship to patient; caring and compassion
- treating mind and body together
- either had dreams about being summoned, were identified by another healer, or had seizures
- formal training from apprenticeship or Tibetan medical school
- high social status
- willing to work with Western medicine to heal
- often male (except midwives)
what is biocultural healing?
healing the social, ecological, and biological aspects of health
- takes into account historical factors
- understands that every body is different
- treats someone beyond their obvious symptoms
early uses of medicinal plants
- evidence from paleolithic graves in the fertile crescent
- trial and error: plants could cause sedation, hallucination, pain relief, poisoning, etc
medicinal plant evidence from shanidar cave
- Shanidar Cave in Kurdistan (60k years ago)
- 4 skeletons and 1 with deformities, evidence of medicinal plants
history of mesopotamia
- land along Tigris and Euphrates riverbeds
- cunieform (stone tablets) used to document writing
- Assyrian King had >600 tablets about medical plants, animal parts, mineral substances, incantations, etc!
- Babylonian King documented >300 medical plants including opium!
history of Egypt
- multiple gods
- medicinals included aloe, mandrake, opium, juniper berries
- embalming common–fluid identity between healers and morticians!
- papyrus (paper) used for text
