Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
3 general stages of human-plant continuum
A
- wild plant food procurement (hunting/gathering, shifting agriculture/slash and burn)
- wild plant food production (minimal tillage)
- cultivation with systematic tillage
2
Q
stage 1 of human-plant continuum
A
- mainly foraging (examples: ginseng, pine nuts, chestnuts)
- some soil burning; protective tending (removing unwanted species)
- ecological effects: less competition, some soil disturbance
3
Q
stage 2 of human-plant continuum
A
- more sedentarism (local irrigation)
- minimal tillage
- includes weeding, transplanting, replacement planting if plants due out, seasonal harvesting
- example is rice fields!!
4
Q
slash and burn agriculture
A
- land burned, then used for 2-5 years
- land left fallow for up to 20 years, becoming secondary vegetation and eventually secondary forest
5
Q
changes in human society with agricultural developement
A
- increasing population density and sedentarism
- government developments
- increasing technology
6
Q
domestication vs agriculture
A
- domestication: genetic alteration/selection of useful traits
- agriculture: cultivation of plants (minimal or intensive)
7
Q
different origins of agriculture
A
- fertile crescent was 1st, around 11k years ago
- Yangtze and Yellow River basins
- New Guinea highlands
- central Mexico
- Northern S. America
- Eastern N. America
- Sub-Saharan Africa
8
Q
evidence for early agriculture
A
- human objects: hearths, pots, garbage dumps, tools, art
- skeletons and mummified remains, including teeth wear
- pollen fossils
- phytoliths
- carbon dating
9
Q
neolithic revolution
A
- origin of farming; 8000-6000 BC
- hunting and gathering transitioned to cultivation
- discovery of metal allowed sharper tools
- transition to more permanent dwellings (caves)
***occurred at many places at the same time!
10
Q
how did people begin to farm?
A
- people found desirable plants in the wild and collected fruits and seeds
- fruits and seeds were scattered at habitation sites
- desirable plants began to grow by settlements
- seeds were then collected and stored to grow more
11
Q
why was hunter/gatherer lifestyle superior compared to farming?
A
- Kung people in Kalahari desert only work 2.5 days per week
- alternatively, farmers more more hours and have worse health
- farming is a logical step when necessary, but many societies don’t fully do it
- it’s also possible for hunter/gatherers to be more sedentary
12
Q
agricultural changes from ice age
A
- after ice age, sea level stopped rising around 10k years ago
- stable costal plains and river valleys (oases with water) began to be settled
- warm, dry climate favored grains
13
Q
theories for origin of agriculture
A
- dump heap hypothesis: plants began growing at settlements from discarded plant matter
- cultural centers: people were sedentary first; turned to farming to avoid traveling far
- environmental determinism: humans outgrew resources and were forced to cultivate (environment determines our activities)
- coevolution: humans dependent on cultivated plants, but as they were artificially selected they also became dependent on humans (couldn’t live in wild)
- both population and climate pressure (Mark Cohen)
- 3 part hypothesis: 1) presence of plants good for domestication and caloric needs, 2) knowledge passed down, 3) decrese in landscape for hunting/gathering (all must be met)
14
Q
“Origin of Cultivated Plants”
A
- by Alphonse Candolle; first book investigating wild progenitors
- found that centers of origin have more varieties and genetic variation than the plants we cultivate
- Candolle identified 6 centers of origin, now 13 identified
15
Q
5 levels of domestication (for a specific plant species)
A
- unconscious selection of plants for desirable traits
- conscious cultivation of plants with desirable traits
- deliberate breeding to improve traits
- scientific breeding–genetic mechanisms known and exploited
- direct genetic manipulation
16
Q
how does domestication reduce genetic diversity?
A
- founder effect: only some varieties of plant brought to the new area (lacking many alleles)
- this causes genetic drift (change in frequency of alleles in the gene pool)
17
Q
wild plants, landraces, and cultivars
A
- wild plants are native plants in center of origin
- landraces are grown near center of origin, but only some desirable varieties of plant
- cultivars are grown away from center of origin; least diverse
18
Q
importance of diversity in potatoes
A
- Irish depended on potatoes bc they were calorically dense, but only grew one variety
- fungi destroyed most of the potatoes
- later, potatoes were crossed with native Andean varieties to make them resistant to fungi
19
Q
domestication of corn
A
- wild progenitors dispersed seeds by “shattering” but humans selected types that don’t shatter so they can collect seeds
- humans also selected for larger seeds
20
Q
characteristics of domestication syndrome
A
- compact growth (less shade, more space, more energy for fruit)
- short life cycle
- seed selection: threshing seeds (easier to gather), larger seeds, sometimes no seeds (vegetative growth)
- reduced dormancy
- increased seedling vigor
- specific spacing for pollination
- polyploidy
- phenotypic plasticity
21
Q
reduced dormancy in domestication syndrome
A
- wild plants have bet-hedging strategy: plants germinate at wider range of times so environmental factors won’t kill entire population
- domesticated plants have a very short germination period and couldn’t survive in wild
22
Q
increased seedling vigor in domestication syndome
A
- wild plants have fragile seedlings–why they are so prolific
- domesticated plants selected for stronger seedlings
23
Q
evolution of polyploid wheat
A
- diploid Einkorn wheat self-crossed and chromosomes didn’t separate, creating tetraploid wheat (Emmer and Durum, used for pasta!)
- tetraploid wheat crossed with goat grasses to make hexaploid wheats (used for bread!)
24
Q
domestication in almonds vs acorns
A
- bitter almonds caused by a single dominant gene; fairly easy to get rid of
- many genes code for tannins in acorns–hard to remove all alleles
25
Q
benefits of vegetative growth
A
new plants already have carbohydrate reserves and protection seeds lack
26
Q
cereals
A
grains that are grasses
27
Q
global significance of grains
A
- only 25/10k species cultivated
- 70% of global farmland
- half of human calories
28
Q
benefits of farming grasses
A
- easy to harvest: dense stands in open habitats
- annual: seed every year
- easy to store: dry fruits/seeds
- good for diet: easily digested, good when paired with a legume
29
Q
general characteristics of grasses
A
- monocotyledons (single seed leaf)
- mostly herbaceous with soft tissues, except bamboo
- man stalk is called a culm
- often rhizomatous (underground stems)
- often have tillers (branching at base)
- highly specialized flowers
30
Q
grass flowering and fruits
A
- compound inflorescence; made of spikelets
- achenes: seeds and fruits fused
31
Q
how does grass protect from herbivory?
A
- silica (sand) incorporated into tissue, which damages teeth
- intercalary meristems: undifferentiated cells at nodes between hollow sections of culm
32
Q
parts of the grain in grasses
A
- bran: outside; fused seed coat and ovary wall
- Aleurone layer: contains fats, proteins, enzymes
- endosperm: starchy area
- germ: embryo
33
Q
selection of grasses
A
- selected for non-branching, shorter grasses to prevent lodging (stems falling over)
- also selected for not shattering
34
Q
grass processing
A
- traditional methods: threshing to remove grains from stalks, winnowing to remove chaff
- now: machines (combines) hull, dehusk, and polish/pearl to remove the germ from outer layers (groats retain these layers!!)
35
Q
characteristics of barley
A
- self-pollinating diploid
- domesticated 2x: fertile crescent and Tibetan plateau
- abundant in disturbed areas
- wild: 3 rows of bristly spikelets; only 1 fertile
- domesticated: 6 rows of spikelets
- selection for synchronized tiller growth, short stems, cold and salinity tolerance
- malting: soaking barley before grinding it; ferments slightly
- uses: beer, livestock, bread
36
Q
wheat
A
- wild and early domesticates diploid; natural mutations made tetraploid and hexaploid
- domesticated 1x (fertile crescent)
- initially brought to Americas by Spanish in 1500s (mostly unsuccessful); more successful later when Russians brought another kind from Crimea
- however europeans also brought over wheat rust (via European Barberry)
- Emmer and Durum wheat used for pasta; hexaploid for bread (hexaploid and higher gluten content)
37
Q
rye
A
- domesticated in Balkans; initially a weed in barley fields
- “poor person’s wheat” but higher in protein!
- uses: bread, flour, beer, whiskey
- salem witch trials: hallucinogenic byproduct (LSD) from fungus growing on rye
38
Q
home gardens/kitchen gardens
A
- small plots of land adjacent to homestead (.5-5 acres)
- agroforests: attempt to mimic stratification of a normal forest as opposed to an ornamental garden
39
Q
2 main purposes for kitchen gardens
A
- human subsistence in the tropics
- food security and global hunger
40
Q
food security
A
access to calories AND nutrients
41
Q
ecological diversity in kitchen gardens
A
- agroforests, but different areas of garden may be dedicated to different plant groups
- animals: arthropods, small mammals, bush meat
42
Q
benefits of kitchen gardens
A
- access to food security
- possibility to enter market economy if excess produced
- self-reliance if governments break down
43
Q
other non-food uses for agroforestry
A
- timber
- firewood
- fodder for animals
- non timber forest products (NTFP): medicinals, leaves, dyes, maple syrup, etc!!
44
Q
3 main features of North American kitchen gardens (oversimplification)
A
- legume: nitrifies soil
- corn: legume can climb on it
- squash/pumpkin: easily grown in shade
45
Q
pioneer kitchen gardens
A
- mostly vegetables and medicinals
- local weeds were consumed for survival
- mostly tended by women!
46
Q
Thomas Jefferson’s kitchen garden
A
- Monticello Estate contained 24 “squares” arranged by plant
- controversial–use of slaves
- slaves often had their own tiny kitchen gardens!
47
Q
kitchen gardens historically vs now
A
- WWII era: government pushed for “victory gardens” on lawns
- now: community gardens in urban areas; healthy eating emphasis
48
Q
diversity in Vietnam home gardens (article)
A
- fruits, vegetables, fish ponds, livestock
- more diversity in the south, especially herbaceous level
- diversity decreased when gardens were destroyed by Vietnam War (Agent Orange removed foliage)
49
Q
benefits and risks of diversity in Vietnamese home gardens (article)
A
- benefits: food security, adaptable to environment
- risks: strong selection pressures, genetic drift, requires intergenerational knowledge
50
Q
ethnosphere
A
dreams, myths, thoughts, and intuitions of human imagination
51
Q
spice trade
A
- was a form of economic botany; europeans brought back spices from other nations via silk road
- spice monopoly in constantinople dominated by Moors
- Vasco de Gama had first successful journey by ship to get spices from India
52
Q
domestication of almonds vs acorns
A
- almonds have 1 single gene for cyanide which was easier to remove
- acorns have tannins (bitter and toxic) that are coded by many genes, making them hard to domesticate
53
Q
affluent foragers
A
hunter/gatherers who had enough resources to become sedentary and keep foraging
54
Q
5 step model for agriculture origin
A
- previous knowledge/skills for manipulating environment
- some species pre-adapted as good domesticates (tetraploid wheat)
- humans less nomadic
- population pressures
- adoption of farming
55
Q
obstacles for animal domestication
A
- difficult diet
- slow growth rate
- bad disposition
- lack of follow the leader tendencies
- won’t breed in captivity
- panic in enclosures
56
Q
A
