Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
anatomy
A
functions of the parts of the brain
2
Q
biochemistry
A
effects of neurotransmitters & hormones on brain processes
3
Q
dendrites
A
projections on nerve cells that receive stimulation
4
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axons
A
pass on stimulation from the nerve cell
5
Q
afferent nerves
A
messages travel along these nerves from the body to the CNS via dendrites
6
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efferent nerves
A
messages travel along these nerves from the body to the CNS via dendrites
7
Q
interneurons
A
organize & regulate transmissions between nerve cells (biggest bundle of these is the brain)
8
Q
hypothalamus
A
Connected to just about everything else
-Helps coordinate & regulate homeostatic systems
-Secretes several hormones
9
Q
amygdala
A
important role in emotion
10
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hippocampus
A
important in processing memories
11
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cortex
A
outer layer of the brain
12
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neocortex
A
outermost layer of the cortex & the most distinctive part of the human brain
13
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frontal cortex
A
crucial part for uniquely human aspects of cognition (large size)
14
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brain damage
A
allows us to track problems caused by damage to different parts of the brain
15
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brain stimulation
A
Directly stimulate the brain to see the impacts on the person
-Difficult to research & relatively rare
-Some methods are growing in popularity
-Mostly in animals, but also conscious people (electrodes in scalp)
16
Q
TMS & tDCS
A
Brain stimulation used to create “virtual lesions” (temporarily turn off parts of the brain to see how psychological processes are affected)
17
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brain activity & imaging
A
Used to observe functioning directly
18
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electroencephalography (EEG)
A
electrodes on the scalp pick up electrical signals generated by the brain (WHEN brain working)
19
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magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A
detects magnetic indications of brain activity (provides timing & spatial info)
20
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computed tomography (CT) scans
A
creates representations of very thin slices of the brain (can examine small structures)
21
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positron emission tomography (PET)
A
maps brain activity based on blood flow
22
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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A
map brain activity based on magnetic impulses generated by oxygen in the blood
23
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brain activity imaging that show WHEN the brain is working
A
-EEG
-MEG
24
Q
brain activity imaging that show WHERE the brain is active
A
-CT scans
-PET
-fMRI
25
Issues with brain imaging
-All parts of the brain are always active to some degree (blood oxygenation level dependent)
-Brain activity in response to a stimulus doesn't mean the same thing occurs every time that area is active
-Most researchers only look at small areas (neural context effect)
-Tech is difficult & expensive to use
26
neural context
The activities of individual areas may not mean much in the absence of knowledge about what other areas of the brain are doing simultaneously
27
amygdala
-Links perceptions & thoughts w/emotional meaning
-Negative & positive emotions
-Assessing whether stimuli is threatening or rewarding
-Detects novelty of stimulus
-Relevant for motivation
28
frontal lobes & neocortex
-Social & emotional understanding
-Self-control & regulation of impulses/feelings
29
relevant amygdala traits
anxiety, fearfulness, sociability, sexuality
30
Phineas Gages
Metal rod through skull, but survived. Personality changed (patience, obstinance, less emotional). Impairment in decision making. Social skills likely rebounded.
31
"Elliott"
Tumor in midline of brain & had a large portion of the cerebral cortex removed. Became unemotional. Unable to make appropriate decisions due to impairment in ability to use emotional reactions in decision-making.
32
somatic marker hypothesis
the bodily (somatic) emotional component of thought is a necessary part of problem solving & decision making
emotions enable people to make decisions that maximize good outcomes & minimize bad ones
33
capgras syndrome
Believe loved ones have been replaced by body doubles following injury to the right frontal lobe. Possibly bc people fail to respond emotionally to their loved ones & conclude they must not be the same people.
34
anterior cingulate
-Experiencing normal emotions
-Controlling emotional responses & behavior impulses
-Implications for extraversion & neuroticism
35
prefrontal leucotomy
Damages small areas of white matter behind each frontal lobe => Intended to decrease pathological levels of agitation & emotional arousal
36
prefrontal lobotomy
removes whole sectors of the frontal lobes
37
peristence
ability to complete a task in the face of obstacle & in the absence of immediate reward (two areas of the frontal cortex & middle brain behind frontal lobes)
38
c-system
effortful, reflective thinking about self & others
lateral prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, posterior parietal cortex
39
x-system
effortless, reflexive social thought
ventromedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, lateral temporal cortex
40
neurotransmitters
chemicals that travel across synapses between neurons, causing a chemical reaction that has an excitatory or inhibitory effect
41
excitatory
fires off a chemical message to the second neuron, which fires
42
inhibitory
block or prevent chemical message from being passed to second neuron
43
hormones
biological substances that affect the body in locations different from where they were produced
44
central nervous system
brain & spinal cord
45
peripheral nervous system
neuronal networks that extend throughout the body
46
endorphins
hormones that inhibit neuronal transmission of pain
47
dopamine
-Responding to rewards & approaching attractive objects/people
-Sociability, general activity level, novelty seeking
-Facilitates exploration, approach, learning
-Relation to Parkinson's, bipolar, impulsivity
-Behavioral activation system
-Related to plasticity (extraversion & openness)
48
serotonin
-Inhibition of behavioral impulses
-Related to stability (conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability)
49
hypothalamus
region of brain that secretes & is involved in regulating hormones
50
gonads
glands that produce sex hormones
51
adrenal cortex
outer layer of the adrenal gland that secretes hormones
52
epinephrine
adrenaline (through body)
53
norepinephrine
adrenaline in brain
54
tend-and-befriend
-Female response to stress
-Calm others down & getting people to work together
-Based on evolutionary theory
-Oxytocin is important
55
testosterone
-10x higher in males
-Complex link to aggression (high levels linked, but not always)
-Fatherhood lowers levels
-Related to sociability, impulsivity, lower inhibition, conformity, stable extraversion
56
cortisol
-Released in response to stress
-Chronically high levels in those with severe stress, anxiety, depression
-Low levels related to PTSD & sensation seeking
57
oxytocin
-Mother-child bonding, romantic attachment, & sexual response
-Decreases fearfulness
-Increases perceptions of trustworthiness & attractiveness in others
-Facilitates approach behaviors
58
extraversion & brain
medial orbital-frontal zortex
59
Conscientiousness & brain
Middle frontal gyrus
60
neuroticism & brain
dorsomedial pre-frontal cortex, cingulate gyrus/caudate, medial temporal lobe
61
agreeableness & brain
superior temporal sulcus, posterior cingulate cortex
62
eugenics
idea that humanity could be improved through selective breeding
63
phenotype
observable traits
64
genotype
genetic structure
65
heritability coefficient
percentage of variance of a trait in the population that can be attributed to variance in genes
66
heritability coefficients in twin studies vs. non-twin studies
Twins => .40
Non-twins => .20
67
molecular genetics
determine whether differences in traits are correlated with differences in a particular gene
68
gene-environment interactions
genes provide an initial design, but there must be an environment in order for there to be a behavior (environments affect heritability)
69
genome-wide association studies
look for association between hundreds of thousands of genes/patterns of genes & personality in large samples
70
epigenetics
experience affects biology; nongenetic influences on a gene's expression
early-life experiences can influence how or if genes are expressed during development
71
evolutionary personality psychology assumptions
behavioral patterns developed bc they were necessary for survival
characteristics with more survival value are more likely to appear in future generations
72
inclusive fitness
tendency to aid & protect people, especially close relatives, to ensure survival of one's own genes into succeeding generations
73
sociometer theory
feelings of self-esteem evolved to monitor the degree to which a person is accepted by others
74
evolution & depression
pain signals that something is wrong & must be fixed
crying as a way to seek social support
fatigue & pessimism may prevent wasting resources
75
frequency dependent behaviors
adjust according to how common they are
only adaptive as long as only a few people do them
76
methodology of evolutionary psychology
backward speculation is difficult to empirically test
77
reproductive instinct
not everyone wants as many children as possible => people don't have to consciously try to do what is evolutionarily adaptive
78
conservative bias
current behavioral order was inevitable & is unchangeable & appropriate
79
human flexibility
people are more flexible than evolution & genetically-determined behavior account for
80
biological reductionism
everything about the mind can be reduced to biology
81
free association
patient says whatever comes to mind => get people to talk about difficult topics
82
psychic determinism
everything that a person thinks & does has a specific cause that can be identified via psychoanalysis
83
id
irrational & emotional (unconscious)
84
ego
rational (at least partially conscious)
85
superego
moral (unconscious)
86
psychic conflict
one part of the mind being in conflict with another part of the mind
87
compromise formation
finding a compromise among the different structures of the mind & what the individual wants (ego's main job)
88
mental energy
mental or psychic energy used by the mind (amount is fixed & finite)
89
psychoanalysis controversy
-Too much emphasis on sex & sexual energy
-Deals with things that can't be seen or proven
-People don't want to be told why they do certain things
90
libido
life drive, or sexual drive (creation, protection, enjoyment of life, creativity, productivity, growth)
91
thanatos
death drive (accounts for destructive activity & to deal with the fact that everyone dies)
92
doctrine of opposites
everything implies & requires its opposite
93
psychosexual physical focus
where energy is concentrated & gratification is obtained
94
psychosexual psychological theme
physical focus & the demands from the outside world
95
psychosexual adult character type
associated w/being fixated or not psychologically resolved in a stage (troublesome throughout life)
96
oral stage (birth-18 months)
Physical => Mouth, lips, tongue
Theme => Dependency, passivity
Character types => Overly independent (not fulfilled) vs. passive (fulfilled automatically/quickly)
97
anal stage (18 months-3 years)
Physical => Anus, organs of elimination
Theme => Self-control & obedience
Character types => Overcontrolled (unreasonable expectations) vs. undercontrolled (never needed to control urges)
98
phallic stage (3.5 years-7 years)
Physical => Sexual organs
Theme => Coming to terms with physical sex differences & implications (oedipal crisis); gender identity & sexuality
Character types => Rigid moral code vs. lack of moral code
99
latency stage (7 years-puberty)
break from development
concentrate on learning & being a kid
100
genital stage (puberty on)
Physical => Genitals; Sexuality in context of mature relationship
Themes => Maturity
Character types => Psychologically well-adjusted/balanced
101
fixation
energy is left behind at a stage if it is unresolved, leaving the person to continue struggling with issues from that stage
102
regression
retreat to an earlier stage when under stress
103
primary process thinking
-Irrational & fast
-Unconscious mind
-"no" doesn't exist
-Goal of immediate gratification
104
Secondary process thinking
-Rational, practical, prudent
-Able to delay or redirect gratification
-Conscious part of ego
-Develops second
105
preconscious mind
ideas you aren't aware of, but can be brought into awareness
106
conscious mind
part of mental functioning you can observe when you turn your attention inward
107
unconscious mind
those areas & processes of the mind which you are not aware of
108
parapraxes
leakages from the unconscious mind that manifest as mistakes, accidents, omissions, or memory lapses
109
parapraxes examples
-Forgetting
-Freudian slips
110
forgetting
suppressing something in the unconscious mind affects life (avoiding thinking abt something painful/anxiety-inducing by not remembering it)
111
freudian slips
unintended actions caused by leakage of suppressed thoughts or impulses (often in speech; more likely when someone is tired, not paying attention, in a hurry, or excited)
112
defense mechanisms
techniques the ego uses to keep certain thoughts & impulses hidden to avoid or lessen anxiety
113
denial
refuse to believe bad news or anything that might make you anxious
114
repression
failure to acknowledge anything that might remind you of unwanted thoughts
115
reaction formation
create the opposite idea to what may cause anxiety
116
projection
think something (usually bad) about the self that would cause anxiety is instead true of others
117
rationalization
create a rational, logical explanation that doesn't acknowledge the real motivation
118
intellectualization
translate anxiety-producing thoughts into cold, unemotional theories or jargon
119
displacement
moving objects of emotions from a dangerous target to a "safe" target
120
sublimation
providing a safe outlet for problematic desires, like work or art
121
regression
using "childish" methods to deal with emotions
122
compensation
flaunting or presenting as something you're not to make people think you are
123
goals of psychoanalysis in therapy
-Bring unconscious conflicts to the surface so the ego can deal with them
-Emotional bond with therapist who assists patient
-However => Low cure rate & takes time
124
critiques of psychoanalysis
-Excessive complexity
-Used case studies
-Untestability
-Sexism
-Focused on ideas that are underemphasized or ignored elsewhere
125
updates to Freud's theory:
-Libido as life drive, not sex drive
-Altering the Oedipal crisis
-Development to include changing social demands
126
neo-freudian psychology
general term for the psychoanalytically oriented work of many therapists & researchers who were closely influenced by freud's theories
127
common neo-freudian themes
-Less emphasis on & reinterpretation of libido
-Less emphasis on unconscious & more on conscious
-More focus on interpersonal relationships as source of psychological difficulties (rather than instinctual drives & mental life)
128
alfred adler
-Inferiority & compensation
-Thought Freud focused too much on sex
-More importance on social interest
129
masculine protest
act & seek to become powerful because of feeling inadequate or inferior as a child (also experienced by women, but acute for men)
130
style of life
behaviors based on compensations for perceived childhood inferiorities
131
carl jung
-Collective unconscious, persona, & personality
-Mystical & spiritual matters
-Archetypes
-Anima & animus
-Ways of thinking
132
collective unconscious
memories & ideas that all humans share
133
archetypes
images/ideas of how people think about the world, both consciously & unconsciously (appear in dreams, fantasies, mythology, & literature)
134
persona
the social mask worn in public (everyone's is false to some degree) => issue when identify more with persona than real self
135
anima
idea/prototype of the female held in the mind of males
136
animus
idea/prototype of the male held in the mind of females
137
carl jung's ways of thinking
rational, feeling, sensing, & intuiting
138
karen horney
-Feminine psychology
-Basic anxiety
139
feminine psychology
Women don't have "penis envy," but envy the freedom to pursue interests & freedom that men have in society
140
basic anxiety
fear of being alone & helpless in a hostile world (adult energy often focused on efforts to overcome this)
141
erik erikson
Psychosocial development
142
psychosocial stage 1
-Basic trust vs. mistrust
-0-2 years
-Learn whether needs will be met, ignored, or overindulged
-Development of hope & confidence
143
hope
a positive but arrogant attitude toward life
144
confidence
that basic needs will be met
145
psychosocial stage 2
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
3-4 years
Figuring out who is in charge (adult or child)
146
psychosocial stage 3
Initiative vs. guilt
4-7 years
Anticipating & fantasizing about life as an adult
Sense of right & wrong (beginning of adult morality)
147
psychosocial stage 4
Industry vs. inferiority
8-12 years
Develop skills & abilities to succeed in the world of work & to contribute to society
Controlling imagination & unfocused energy
148
psychosocial stage 5
Identity vs. identity confusion
Adolescence
Figuring out who you are & what is important
Choosing consistent, meaningful, & useful values/goals
149
psychosocial stage 6
Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adulthood
Finding an intimate life partner
150
psychosocial stage 7
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle age
True concerns to the next generation OR become passive
151
psychosocial stage 8
Integrity vs. despair
Old age
Brought on by prospect of death
Based on feelings about one's life
152
melanie klein & d. w. winnicott
objects relations theory
153
object relations theory
-The most important part of life is relationships
-Analyze our interpersonal relationships
-We relate to others via the images of them we have in our mind
-When they don't match these images, there are problems
-Mental images/representations of an object can be assigned to lots of others in our lives
154
objects
emotionally important people
155
4 principle themes of ORT
-Every relationship has elements of satisfaction & frustration
-Often a mix of love & hate
-Distinction between parts of the love object & the whole person
-The psyche is aware of & distributed by these contradictory feelings
156
perceptual defense
when the ego tries to prevent stimuli, that the superego finds overly threatening, from entering awareness
157
parallel distributed processing
-Mind does many different things at once
-Only a small fraction of this activity becomes conscious
-Conscious thoughts & behaviors are a compromise of unconscious processes
158
catharsis
freely expressing the issues that trouble you
159
humanistic psychology
the psychological study of awareness, free will, happiness, & the many related aspects of the mind that are uniquely human & give life meaning
160
8 elements of humanistic psychology
Humanistic (only humans)
Holistic (whole person)
Phenomenological (experience of the individual & existential aspects)
Real life (ppl in their real environments)
Positivity (positive experiences, prosocial, virtuous)
Will (ability to make choices & decisions)
Value (philosophy of life)
161
goal of humanistic psychology
overcome the paradox of studying humans
ppl have internal drives that are outside of the researcher's awareness or control
162
implications of self-awareness
addresses the uniquely human phenomena that awareness results in (free will, willpower, mindfulness, imagination, etc.)
163
phenomenology
one's conscious experience of the world (at the center of humanity)
164
construal
a person's particular experience of the world
165
introspection
observation of one's own perceptions & thought processes
166
existentialism
a broad philosophical movement, that began in the mid-1800s, as a reaction to rationalism, science, & the industrial revolution
167
purpose of existentialism
regain contact with the experience of being alive & aware
168
parts of experience (3)
Biological experience (umwelt)
Social experience (mitwelt)
Psychological experience (eigenwelt)
169
umwelt
the sensations you feel as a biological organism (pleasure, cold, heat, hunger, etc.)
170
mitwelt
what you think & feel as a social being
171
eigenwelt
how you feel & think when you try to understand yourself, your mind, & your existence
172
thrown-ness
the time, place, & circumstances into which you happened to be born (important basis of experience)
173
angst (existential anxiety)
the unpleasant feeling caused by contemplating the meaning of life & how one should spend one's time
174
parts of angst
anguish, forlornness, despair
175
anguish
everyone feels this because choices are never perfect & lead to both good & bad outcomes
176
forlornness
each person must make their own choices (desolate, lonely, sad, forsaken)
177
despair
the awareness that many outcomes are beyond your own control
178
bad faith
living while ignoring the existential & moral questions of life
179
problems with bad faith
Living a cowardly life, unhappiness, impossible
180
authentic existence
coming to terms with existence (honest, insightful, & morally correct; alternative to bad faith)
181
eastern alternative to existentialism
anatta, anicca, enlightenment, & nirvana
182
anatta
no unchanging, independent, singular self or soul is at the center of each person (who you sense in your mind is an illusion & everyone is connected)
183
anicca
idea that all things must pass (good & bad)
184
enlightenment
caring for others the same as for yourself (leads to universal compassion)
185
nirvana
a serene, selfless state (result of enlightenment)
186
carl rogers & abraham maslow
optimistic humanism, people are basically good, existential assumptions of free will & phenomenology
187
carl rogers
-Self-actualization
-People can only be understood from one perspective of their phenomenal field (entire conscious existence)
188
actualization
goal of existence is to satisfy the basic needs
189
phenomenal field
the entire panorama of conscious experience
190
hierarchy of needs
how human motivation is characterized (lower needs met first, but self-actualization is the ultimate need)
191
personal constructs
the individual theories of each person based on how their construals are assembled
192
maximizers
people who believe one should always seek to get the best/most they possibly can (perfectionism, depression, regret)
193
satisficers
people who believe that some outcomes are good enough (happier, more optimistic, & higher life satisfaction)
194
positive psychology
focuses on positive subjective experience & individual traits
195
virtues
character strengths
196
core virtues (to many/all cultures)
Courage
Justice
Humanity/Compassion
Temperance
Wisdom
Transcendence
197
courage
emotional strengths that involve the exercise of one's will (accomplishing goals in the face of opposition)
198
examples of courage
bravery, perseverance, honesty
199
justice
strengths that underlie healthy community life
200
examples of justice
fairness, leadership, teamwork
201
humanity/compassion
strengths that involve protecting & taking care of others
202
examples of humanity/compassion
love (deep affection), kindness
203
temperance
strengths that protect against excess
204
examples of temperance
forgiveness, humility, prudence, self-control
205
wisdom
strengths that entail the acquisition & use of knowledge
206
examples of wisdom
creativity, curiosity, judgment, perspective
207
transcendence
strengths that give meaning to life by connecting to the larger universe
208
examples of transcendence
gratitude, hope, spirituality
209
mindfulness
being alert & aware of one's thoughts, sensations, & experiences in the moment (calmly acknowledging & accepting one's feelings, thoughts, & bodily sensations)
210
flow
the subjective experience/enjoyment of an autolectic activity
211
autolectic activity
ones that are enjoyable for their own sake
212
consequences of flow
concentration, lack of distractibility, focus on only one activity at hand
mood slightly elevated & time seems to pass quickly
213
awe
encountering an entity that is vast & challenges their worldview (some people more prone to)
214
happiness components
Overall satisfaction with life
Satisfaction with how things are going in particular domains
High levels of positive emotions & low levels of negative emotions
215
hedonic well-being
seek to maximize pleasure & minimize pain (leads to excluding other goals)
216
eudaimonic well-being
seeking a meaningful life (leads to finding & seeking valuable goals)
217
sources of happiness
-Individual set point (moderately stable)
-Objective life circumstances
-Intentional activity
-Various interventions can increase
218
positive consequences of happiness
good health, occupational success, supportive relationships, more confident, optimistic, likeable, sociable, & energetic
219
consequences of too much happiness
failure to recognize risky situations, make it harder for things to get better, trying to hard to be happy can lead to disappointment if one fails, harm to others, may lead to the individual's downfall
220
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions
use positive emotions as a foundation for creating & maintaining better life circumstances
broaden an individual's momentary thought-action tendencies
build an individual's personal resources
221
toxic positivity
the act of rejecting or denying stress, negativity, or other negative experiences that exist
222
cross-cultural psychology
research that compares cultures with one another
223
cultural psychology
seeks to understand individual cultures in their own terms & avoids making comparisons
224
culture
psychological attributes of groups (customs, habits, beliefs, & values) that shape emotions, behaviors, & life patterns
225
enculturation
learning the culture into which one is born
226
acculturation
picking up a new culture
227
etics
universal aspects of culture
228
emics
unique aspects of culture
229
tightness
degree of tolerance of deviation from proper behavior (social norms)
230
collectivism
importance of needs & rights of the GROUP
231
individualism
importance of needs & rights of the INDIVIDUAL
232
vertical cultures
assume individuals are importantly different from each other (more social hierarchy)
233
horizontal cultures
view individuals as essentially equal
234
allocentrism
believes group > individual
235
ideocentrism
believes individual > group
236
ecological approach to cultural difference origins
Exist bc different cultures developed in difference circumstances with the need to deal with different problems
ecology => culture => socialization => personality => behavior
237
genetics & culture
Typical assumption that cultural differences are learned, not innate
Some issues with this:
-Genetic differences across cultures
-Cultural groups defined based on more than just ethnic or linguistic similarity
-People within cultures differ
238
ethnocentrism
judging another culture from the POV of one's own
239
outgroup homogeneity bias
bias to see members of groups to which one doesn't belong as similar to each other
240
cultural relativism
all cultural views of reality are equally valid
