Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
psychological triad
A
combo of how people think, feel, and behave
2
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psychological mechanisms
A
processes that are responsible for (or underlie) one’s thoughts, emotions, & behaviors
3
Q
personality
A
an individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the psychological mechanisms–hidden or not–behind those patterns
4
Q
personality (alt definition)
A
an individual’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving
5
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major goal of personality psychology
A
to explain the whole person in their daily environment
6
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basic approaches
A
theoretical views that focus on some phenomena & ignore others (allows to limit what part of personality is studied)
7
Q
trait approach
A
how people differ psychologically (conceptualizing, measuring, & examining personality traits over time)
8
Q
biological approach
A
understanding the mind in terms of the body (anatomy, physiology, evolution, genetics, etc.)
9
Q
psychoanalytic approach
A
focusing on the unconscious mind & internal mental conflict
10
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phenomenological approach
A
focusing on people’s conscious experiences of the world
11
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humanistic (phenomenological) approach
A
How conscious awareness produces uniquely human attributes; Understanding meaning & basis of happiness
12
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cross-cultural (phenomenological) approach
A
how the experience of reality might differ across cultures
13
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learning approach
A
how behavior changes as a result of rewards, punishments, & other life experiences
14
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classic behaviorism approach
A
focuses on overt behavior (ex: classical conditioning)
15
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social learning approach
A
how observation & self-eval determine behavior
16
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cognitive personality psychology approach
A
focuses on cognitive processes, including perception, memory, & thought
17
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one big theory (OBT)
A
tries to explain everything with one theory, rather than using multiple to compliment each other
18
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advantages of basic approaches
A
-Good at addressing specific topics
-Inclusive, interesting, important
-Leads to sensitivity & respect for individual differences
-Other areas of psych may see individual differences as errors
19
Q
disadvantages of basic approaches
A
-Poor at addressing other topics or ignores them
-Over-inclusive or unfocused research
-Pigeonholing (putting into a specific category all the time)
20
Q
goal of psychology research
A
to continuously improve on tentative answers to scientific questions => thinking & seeking new knowledge => exploring the unknown
21
Q
clues
A
observable aspects of personality, such as behaviors, test scores, self-reports, etc
22
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S-data
A
self-reports
23
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I-data
A
informant reports
24
Q
L-data
A
life outcomes
25
B-data
behavioral observations
26
s-data advantages
-High face validity
-Large amount of info
-Access to thoughts, feelings, & intentions
-Definitional truth abt the person
-Causal force (if you believe about self, will likely become true)
-Simple & easy
27
face validity
when the instrument appears to measure what it is intended to measure
28
self-efficacy
what you think you are capable of & the kind of person you think you are impacts your goals
29
self-verification
people work to convince others to treat them in a manner that confirms their self-concepts
30
s-data disadvantages
-Bias (overly + or -, desire for privacy or faking to look good)
-Error (don't notice obvious characteristics, distortion of memory, lack of self-insight, carelessness)
-Too simple & too easy
31
judgments
based on observing people in whatever cone-text they know them from (I-data)
32
I-data advantages
-Large amount of info
-Real-world bias (not controlled)
-Common sense
-Definitional truth
-Causal force
33
I-data disadvantages
-Limited behavioral info (may not see in more than 1 context)
-Lack of access to private experience
-Error (more likely to remember extreme & unusual)
-Bias (personal issues/feelings, letter of rec effect for + data, prejudices & stereotypes)
34
L-data advantages
-Objective & verifiable
-Intrinsic importance (what researcher needs to know & what people want to make an impact on)
-Psychological relevance (affected by & informative of psychological variables)
35
L-data disadvantages
-Any given outcome can have many causes (multidetermination)
-Hard to obtain
36
natural B-data advantages
-Realistic
37
natural B-data disadvantages
-Difficult
-Uncomfortable for subject
38
natural B-data
Based on real life
39
EAR
electronically activated recorder
40
ambulatory assessment
assess behavior, thoughts, & feelings during normal daily activities
41
laboratory B-data
Experiments, physiological measures
42
laboratory B-data advantages
-Range of contexts (don't need to wait for rare events)
-Appearance of objectivity (but subjective judgments still made)
43
laboratory B-data disadvantages
-Difficult & expensive sometimes
-Uncertain interpretations
44
reliability
Consistency; Measurements give same info across repeated trials
45
measurement error (error variance)
cumulative effect of extraneous influences
46
factors that undermine reliability
-Low precision
-State of participant
-State of experimenter
-Variation in the environment
47
How to enhance reliability
-Be careful
-Use constant, scripted procedure
-Measure something that is important & engages participants
-Aggregate (average measurements)
48
aggregation
averaging measurements
49
validity
degree to which a measurement measures what it is supposed to
50
construct validation
establish validity of a measure by comparing it to a wide range of other, related measures
51
generalizability
the degree to which a measurement applies to other tests, situations, or people
52
what undermines generalizability
-College students vs. Others
-Gender bias
-Shows vs. No-Shows
-Ethnic & cultural diversity
53
case-study advantages & disadvantages
-Describes whole phenomenon
-Source of ideas
-Sometimes necessary for understanding an individual
-Unknown generalizability
54
experimental method
establishes the causal relationship between an IV and a DV
55
correlational method
establishes the relationship of two measured variables as they occur naturally
56
third variable problem
an observed correlation between 2 variables may be caused by a 3rd
57
omnibus inventories
measure a wide range of traits
58
one-trait measures
measure only one trait
59
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
-Designed to be administered by a clinician
-Sometimes used by employers
-Assesses personality traits & psychopathology
-Developed in 40s & has 567 T/F questions
-Validity & clinical sub-scales
60
California psychological inventory (CPI)
-Designed for those w/o disorders
-Commonly used in workplace
-Developed in 50s
-171 items from MMPI
-Lengthy
-Self-report questionnaire
-Several personality subscales
61
projective tests
presents a person with ambiguous stimulus & asks them to describe what is seen
62
theory about projective tests
answers reveal inner psychological needs, feelings, experiences, thought processes, or hidden aspects of the mind
63
projective test advantages
-Good for breaking ice
-Some skilled clinicians may be able to use them to get info not captured by controlled research
64
projective test disadvantages
-Validity evidence is scarce
-Expensive & time-consuming
-Cannot be certain of meaning
-Less expensive tests work better
-Sometimes used inappropriately
65
objective tests
personality test with a list of questions to be answered by the subject as yes or no, true or false, or on a numeric scale (s-data)
66
rational method of objective test construction
Write items that seem directly, obviously, and rationally related to concept being measured
-Less systematic
-Items must mean same thing to creator & taker
-Need to be valid indicators/measures
67
factor analytic method of objective test construction
identifies group of items that seem to have something in common
Steps:
-Generate long list
-Administer to a large number of people
-Analyze w/factor analysis
-Interpret commonality & meaning of items that group together
68
empirical method of objective test construction
identify items based on how people of a pre-identified group respond
Steps:
-Gather a lot of items
-Have a sample that's already divided into groups
-Administer test
-Compare the answers of the groups
-Cross-validate
69
null hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
traditional method of statistical analysis in psychology
70
null hypothesis
possibility if there is no result/connection
71
statistical significance
result that would only occur by chance less than 5% of the time (p-level < 0.05)
72
p-level
probability level of obtaining a result from a statistical test is no difference between groups or no relationship between variables
73
problems with NHST
-Logical is difficult to understand
-Criterion for significance is arbitrary rule of thumb
-Nonsignificant doesn't = no result
-Only provides info for type 1 error
74
Type I error (false positive)
deciding one variable has an effect on another variable when it truly doesn't
75
Type II error (false negative)
Deciding one variable doesn't have an effect on another variable when it truly does
76
effect size
index of the magnitude/strength of the relationship between variables
77
correlation coefficient (r)
common measure of effect (between -1 & 1)
78
replication
doing the study again to see if the same results can be repeated with different participants in a different lab (improves reliability)
79
publication bias
studies with strong results are more likely to be published than those with weak results => makes effects seem stronger than they are in literature
80
incentive system
researchers who published in best journals, often with the "flashiest" results, and had most publications => best jobs & won awards
81
p-hacking
hacking around in one's data until one finds the necessary degree of statistical significance that allows one's findings to be published
82
How to make research more dependable
-Pretest to ensure valid measures
-Large number of Ps
-Share data
-Disclose all methods
-Report studies that don't "work"
-Don't regard one study as conclusive proof
-Change incentive system
83
open science center
goal to increase openness, integrity, & the reproducibility of science; encourages pre-registration
84
confirmatory research
have a hypothesis in advance to test the soundness of the theory
85
exploratory research
if data is freely available, you and others can explore and discover new things
86
ethical issues
Need to know how personality scores will be used (learning, helping, selection)
87
trait approach explanation
-Relies on correlational designs
-Focuses on individual differences
-Traits are the building blocks of personality
-People are inconsistent
88
person-situation debate issues
Can a person's personality transcend the immediate context & provide consistent guidance for actions?
Our intuition is that people have personalities.
Why do psychologists continue to argue the consistency of personality?
89
situationism
belief that behavior is largely driven by the situation, & that personality is relatively unimportant; traits can't be used to predict behavior w/enough accuracy to be useful
90
the big five
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
91
interactionism
persons & situations are constantly interacting with each other to produce behavior
92
human nature (situationist vs. personality)
Situationism:
-Free to do whatever & personality doesn't drive behavior
-Everyone is equal & differences are a function of the situation
Personality:
-Behavior partly determined by personality
-Some people are more likely to have negative outcomes
-Everyone is unique
-People can develop consistent identities
93
consequences of everyday personality judgements
-Impact opportunities
-Expectancies (behavior influenced by how people expect us to act)
94
School expectancy effects
Climate => Warmer attitude of teacher
Feedback => More differentiated feedback that depends on whether the response is correct
Input => Teachers teach more difficult material
Output => Extra opportunities for students to show what they know
95
expectancy effects in real life
-Real test results (performance)
-Observations of performance
-Observations of behavior
-Information from acquaintances
96
convergent validity
several characteristics converge to improve confidence
97
interjudge agreement
the degree to which 2 or more judges of the same person provide the same personality descriptions
98
behavioral prediction (predictive validity)
the degree to which a judgment converges with future info & can accurately predict behavior
99
faces & first impressions
Best for extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness (better than r = .30)
For male faces => Agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism
100
moderator variable
affects or changes the relationship between two other variables
101
moderators of accuracy
variables that change the correlation between a personality judgment & its criterion (for accuracy)
judge, target, trait, & information
102
characteristics of good judges
-Women slightly more accurate
-High in communion
-Emphasize interpersonal connections
-Judges & describes people favorably
-Socially sensitive, agreeable, high empathetic concern
-Open, positive, expressive, socially skilled
-Well adjusted
-Low on dark triad traits
103
judgability
how accurately a person is typically judged by others
104
judgability is related to
-Stable, well-organized, consistent behavior
-Extraverted & agreeable
-Well-adjusted
-Psychological health & happiness
105
self-monitoring
personality trait where people regulate their behavior & presentation of their self based on the social situation
106
best traits
easy to observe (highly visible)
107
sociosexuality
individuals likely to engage in sexual behavior w/those they don't know well (evolutionary basis for judgment of traits)
108
amount of information
-More is better
-More accurate if know someone longer
-Impacts accuracy, but not consensus
109
target-judge accuracy
how similar a judge's rating is compared to the target's rating
110
consensus
interjudge agreement
111
quality of information
-When person talks about thoughts and feelings => Higher agreement with rating from self/close friends
-Unstructured situations give more accurate judgments
-People do different things in weak situations, but strong situations restrict what they can do
-Difficult/emotionally-arousing situations allow for more information
112
realistic accuracy model (RAM) stages
Relevance => Informative to the trait being judged
Availability => In a manner & place that the judge can see it
Detection => Judge notices the info
Utilization => Accurately remembers & correctly interprets information
113
self-knowledge
-Hallmark of mental health (good decisions on important issues, wise enough to see world as it is & self)
114
improving self-knowledge
-Introspection
-Seek feedback from others
-Observe your own behavior
-May be limited by family and/or culture
115
barnum (forer) effect
uses vague statements that are true for most people and often positive
116
true about traits
-Characterize average behavior across time & situations
-Can be used to predict behavior & important life outcomes
117
density distribution
differences in behaviors & states over time & situations
118
single-trait approach
what people with a certain personality trait do (links a trait to many behaviors)
119
Self-monitors (high vs. low)
High:
-Look for cues on how to act
-Difficult to accurately judge
-Described as skilled in social techniques
-Talkative
-Self-dramatizing
-Better in job interviews
-More willingness to live
Low:
-More consistent
-More guided by inner personality
-Easier to judge accurately
-Described as distrustful, perfectionists, touchy, & irritable
-Some correlations w/mental illness
120
narcissism
escessive self-love
121
behaviors & attributes of narcissists
-Aggressive when positive self-view threatened
-Take frustrations out on others when rejected
-Don't handle failure well
-Argue & swear a lot
122
associated traits of narcissism
Charm, good first impressions, leadership/authority, self-confidence, charisma, popularity, power, life satisfaction
123
many-trait approach
What types of people do a certain behavior (one behavior to many traits/people)
124
essential-trait approach
which traits are most important?
125
lexical hypothesis
important aspects of life will be labeled with words (if truly important & universal, there will be many words in all languages)
126
Openness (to experience, etc.)
-Most controversial
-Creative, imaginative, open-minded, clever, perceptive, original, intelligent, curious
-Most unlikely to replicate
127
downsides of openness
-Susceptible to believing incorrect info
-Over-claim what they know
-Believe in the existence of scientifically unsupported phenomena
-More risk for substance abuse
128
Conscientiousness
-Dutiful, careful, rule-abiding, ambitious, responsible, trustworthy
-Observed in non-human animals
129
downsides of conscientiousness
-Prone to guilt
-Suffer psychologically if unemployed
-Can be "unpopular" (rigid)
-Less creative (rule-followers)
-Conforming
-Obedient
130
extraversion
-Active, outspoken, dominant, ambitious, hard-working, assertive
-Powerfully influences behavior (can be tiresome to be less extraverted/more introverted)
-Sensitive to rewards
-Experience more positive emotions
131
downsides of extraversion
-"Stolen away" from partners
-Argumentative
-Controlling
-Poor time management
-At risk of being overweight
-May be viewed as annoying
132
agreeableness
-Cooperative, warm, loving, likable, compassionate, moral, trustworthy, modes
-Women tend to be more than men (socialization)
-Psychologically well-adjusted
-More peer acceptance & dating satisfaction
-Unlikely to engage in criminal behavior
133
downsides of agreeableness
-Too conforming
-High on "friendly compliance"
-Worry about what others think
134
Neuroticism (descriptors/downsides)
-React negatively to stressful events
-Sensitive to social threats (rejection)
-Ineffective problem solving
-More negative emotions
-Anxiety & depression
-Impulsivity
-Complaining
-Struggle to handle criticism
-Feel oppressed
-More likely to experience illness
-Relationship conflict
-Undesirable life outcomes
-Perfectionism
135
orthogonality
expect construct to be independent of others (big five isn't entirely)
136
emotional intelligence
ability to understand & regulate own emotions & understand the feelings of others
137
typological approach
the structure of traits across individuals is not the same thing as the structure of personality within a person (important differences may be qualitative rather than quantitative)
138
typological replicable personality types
Well-adjusted, maladjusted over-controlling, & maladjusted under-controlling
139
myers-briggs type indicator
-Popular
-Barnum effect
-Not useful for life outcomes
-Based on normally distributed scores
-Not reliable
140
rank-order consistency
people tend to maintain the ways in which they are different from others their age
141
Causes of stability
-Temperament associated with adult traits
-Physical factors
-Environmental factors
-Birth order
-Early adverse experiences
-Early positive experiences
-Person-environment interactions
-Cumulative continuity principle
-Psychological maturity
142
temperament
personality of young children
143
heterotypic continuity
temperament/personality stays the same with age (but behaviors change with age)
144
birth order evidence
Small effects, but may suggest that parents treat first child differently than younger children
145
person-environment interactions
people tend to respond to, seek out, & create environments that are compatible with their personality traits
146
active person-environment interactions
person seeks out compatible environments & avoids incompatible ones
147
reactive person-environment interactions
different people respond differently to the same situations
148
evocative person-environment interactions
aspects of an individual's personality lead to behavior that changes the situation
149
cumulative continuity principle
individual differences in personality become more consistent with age (environment becomes more stable)
150
psychological maturity
behavioral consistency in traits that help one fulfill adult roles
151
as age, more likely to develop greater:
self-control, interpersonal sensitivity, emotional stability
152
personality development
change in the mean level of a personality trait over time
153
cross-sectional studies
survey people at different ages
154
cohort effects
people of different ages may differ because they grew up in different social (& sometimes physical) environments => Age differences in cross-sectional studies
155
longitudinal studies
study the same people through many years
156
causes of personality development
-Physical development & changes in strength
-Increases in intelligence & linguistic abilities
-Hormone-level changes
-Changes in social roles & responsibilities
157
social clock
systematic changes in the demands made on a person over the years
158
social clock study
showed higher life satisfaction when following either social clock > following neither
159
narrative identity
the story you tell about your life
160
actor (narrative identity)
develop social skills, traits, & roles in society (infancy)
161
agent (narrative identity)
guided by goals & values; plan for future to align with desired outcomes (~5)
162
author (narrative identity)
able to tell life story (~20)
163
socioemotional selectivity theory
Goals change across the lifespan
-Younger = prep for future
-Older = emotionally meaningful things
related to changes in social roles & perspectives
164
Why does personality change?
-Desire (usually in socially desirable direction)
-Make life better
165
methods of personality change
-Psychotherapy
-General interventions
-Targeted interventions
-Life experiences
166
psychotherapy
Can produce long-term behavior changes (emotional stability & extraversion), but may have downsides (increases chronic stress, depression, neuroticism)
167
General interventions
-Usually aimed at important outcomes
-Some evidence that intensive programs can be successful
168
targeted interventions
-Address specific personality traits
-Openness => puzzles for older adults, opera & museums for all ages
-Stress tolerance & defensiveness => Self-affirmations about values
-Neuroticism => reduce risk for anxiety disorders, parents taught techniques
-Narcissism => Decreased when told to take other's perspective
-Self-control => Increases with meditation, relaxation, different thinking
169
Self-affirmation interventions
to maintain a positive view in the face of some threatening info, you will think about other things in life that you value
170
sociogenomic trait intervention model
intended to change lots of behaviors at the same time by changing a trait (push outside comfort zone until automatic)
171
obstacles to change:
-Need to see a reason to change
-Takes effort
-Blaming negative experiences & failures on external factors, rather than own personality
-People like consistency & predictability
172
maturity principle
people become better equipped to deal with the demands of life as they acquire experience & skills
173
plasticity principle
personality can change at any time
174
role continuity principle
taking on roles can lead to personality being consistent over time
175
identity development principle
seek to develop a stable sense of who they are & strive to act consistently with self-view
176
social investment principle
changing social roles at different stages of life can cause personality to change
177
corresponsive principle
person-environment interactions can cause personality traits to remain consistent or even magnify over time
