EXAM #2 Flashcards
1
Q
Involves three stages of learning a motor skill
1. Cognitive stage
2. Associative stage
3. Autonomous stage
A
Fitts and Posner
2
Q
Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problems/learning skill
A
Cognitive Stage
3
Q
Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements; works to refine performance to be more consistent
A
Associative Stage
4
Q
Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Final stage where performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of attention demanded)
A
Autonomous Stage
5
Q
Gentile’s two-stage model:
* Getting the Idea of the Movement
* Learner Works to Achieve Two Goals:
* Organize movement pattern to enable some degree of
success achieving action goal
* Discriminate between regulatory and non regulatory
conditions in environmental context, i.e. pin position,
lane condition vs. crowd noise, score
A
Initial Stage
6
Q
Gentile’s two-stage model: Later Stages
* Involves Learner Acquiring Three Characteristics:
* Adapting movement pattern to demands of any
performance situation
* Increase consistency of action goal achievement
* Perform with an economy of effort/ maximum
performance for the least energy expenditure
A
Fixation/Diversification
7
Q
Unique Feature of Gentile’s “Later Stages”
* Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of skill
being learned
* _: fixation of movement pattern
* Develop optimal movement pattern to allow consistent
action goal achievement
* Stable/controlled conditions, i.e. training sessions
A
Closed skills
8
Q
Unique Feature of Gentile’s “Later Stages”
* Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of skill
being learned
* _: diversification of movement pattern
* Develop flexible movement pattern that can adapt to
changing and novel environmental context conditions
* Constantly changing/unpredictable conditions, i.e. team sports
A
Open skills
9
Q
Best Remembered for His Ideas About Freezing
& Freeing Degrees of Freedom
* Thought That Learning a Skill Was Similar to Solving a
Problem
* Described appropriate practice as a form of Repetition without Repetition
A
Bernstein
10
Q
The time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response
A
Reaction Time
11
Q
_ is the commonly used index of
the amount of preparation time
A
Reaction Time
12
Q
_ occurs between action
Intention and Initiation
A
Action preparation
13
Q
Reaction time decrease with increasing spatial compatibility between stimulus and response
A
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
14
Q
Simon effect:
An easy to observe phenomenon
- occurs when there is a harmonious relation between what you observe and how you must respond to it
A
Stimulus-response compatibility
15
Q
- _ of Task Performance Related to Amount of Practice
- Different Brain Areas Active When Tasks Are or Are Not _
- Example: driving home
A
- Automaticity
- Automatized
16
Q
Performance of a skill (or its parts) with little/no demand on attention
A
Automaticity
17
Q
Number of Response Choices
* The time it takes for a person to make a decision increases as the amount of possible choices increase (longer to decide)
* The time it takes for a person to make a decision decreases as the amount of possible choices decrease (shorter to decide)
* Illustrates one’s ability to make decisions with different amounts of uncertainty
A
Hick’s Law
18
Q
Six Characteristics of General Performance Characteristics of Skill Learning
A
- Improvement
- Consistency
- Stability
- Persistence
- Adaptability
- Reduced attention demands
19
Q
Relation between colors and color names
A
Stroop Effect
20
Q
Related to selective attention, which is the ability to respond to certain environmental stimuli while ignoring others
A
Stroop Effect
21
Q
Line graph that plots performance measures
across practice trials or periods of time
* Provide Evidence of:
* Improvement
* Consistency
A
Performance Curves
22
Q
General Trends in Performance Curves:
Proportional increases over trials or time
A
Linear
23
Q
General Trends in Performance Curves:
Early improvement but slows later
A
Negatively Accelerated
24
Q
General Trends in Performance Curves:
Slight improvement early but substantial improvement later
A
Positively Accelerated
25
General Trends in Performance Curves:
Combination of A, B, & C curves
Ogive or S-shaped
26
Strategies that Enhance Memory Performance:
* Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
* Person thinks of producing a metaphoric image related to the movement (e.g. drawing a bow in archery similar to beginning of movement to serve a volleyball)
Visual metaphoric imagery
27
Strategies that Enhance Memory Performance:
* Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
* Attach a specific label to the movement
Verbal label
28
Performance
* Execution of a skill at a specific time and in a
specific location
* Temporary
* May not be due to practice
* May be influenced by performance variables
Observable behavior
29
Learning
* Not directly observable
* Must be inferred from _ _
* Relatively permanent
* Due to practice
* Not influenced by performance variables
observable behavior
30
Attention theories:
* Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of inability to serially process multiple stimuli
* Everyone has a natural mental filter allowing certain
amounts of information (stimuli) through at a time
* Information is based on importance
* Bits and pieces of information may pass through
Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)
31
Attention theories:
* Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because
of limited availability of resources needed to carry out
tasks
* People have a limited amount of attention to devote to any one thing at any given moment
* i.e. resource capacity limits
* Simultaneous successful performance of multiple tasks can occur when resource capacity limits not exceeded
* A lot of competing information from different sources
can cause a person’s attention to reach its capacity
quickly
Resource Capacity Theories
32
Attention theories:
Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of attention resources for which all activities compete
Central Resource Capacity Theories
33
Attention theories:
An example of a central resource capacity theory
* Equates attention with “cognitive effort”
* Proposed flexible attention capacity limits
* There are limits to what we can attend to and process
at any one time
Kahneman’s Attention Theory
34
The Amount of Attention Capacity Available for a Specific Performance Situation Determined by the Person’s Motivation Level:
* Attention resources available (i.e. capacity) varies in relation to a person’s motivation
* Maximum amount available when motivation level is optimal for the situation
Kahneman’s Attention Theory
35
3 “Rules” People Use to Allocate Attention
Resources When Performing Multiple Tasks
* Ensure completion of at least one task
* Enduring dispositions: Involuntary allocation
* Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., “cocktail party
phenomenon”); partygoer can focus on a single
conversation in a noisy room
* Momentary intentions: Allocate attention according to instructions
Kahneman’s Attention Theory
36
Attention theories:
* Alternative to One Central Resource Theories
* Propose that we have several resources for attention
* Each source has a limited capacity
* The multiple sources based on specific information
processing need
* Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)
* Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)
* Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)
* Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends
on competition for attention resources within and
between the multiple sources
Multiple Resource Theories
37
* Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
* Visual metaphoric imagery
* The Intention to Remember
* Subjective Organization
Strategies that Enhance Memory
Performance
38
* Determines attention demands of the simultaneous
performance of two different tasks
* Primary task is the task of interest
* Secondary task performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task
Dual-Task Procedure
39
Completing two tasks simultaneously
* Compare performance with single task conditions
* Higher when tasks are not competing with each other
– Reciting poetry while riding a bike
* Lower when tasks are competing with each other
– Reciting poetry while writing an essay
* Practicing a motor task under dual-task conditions can be
beneficial to motor learning when the secondary task is
difficult
* Example: agility ladder with ball
Dual-Task Procedure
40
- Trace dacy
- Retroactive Interference
- Proactive Interference
Causes of forgetting
41
Causes of forgetting:
* new information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information; works backwards to interfere with earlier information
* EX: students learn state capitals one week, then learn world capitals the following week, this could cause confusing about the state capitals
Retroactive Interference
42
Causes of forgetting:
* old information interferes with the ability to remember new information
* EX: if a person knows the rules of rugby then started learning the rules of football, he may have trouble remembering the rules of football because they conflict with the
old information, i.e. rules of rugby
Proactive Interference
43
Causes of forgetting:
* something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain
* over time this trace tends to disintegrate, fade away, unless it is occasionally used
Trace Decay
44
Influence of Previous Experience on:
* Learning a new skill
* Performing a skill in a new setting/context
Transfer of learning
45
Transfer of learning:
Similarity of Skill and Context Components
* Various ideas on what constitutes a component
* Roots in Thorndike’s “identical elements” theory
Similarity of Processing Requirements
* Transfer-appropriate processing view
Positive transfer of learning
46
Transfer of learning:
Considered Rare and Temporary in Motor Learning
* Occurs When New Skill or Context Involves similar environmental context features but requires a different movement response
* Tennis swing vs. baseball swing
* Negative Effects Can Be Overcome with Practice
* Important for the Practitioner to be Aware That it
Could Cause Discouragement Early in Practice
Negative transfer of learning
47
Three Main Reasons:
1. Established perception-action coupling elicits an
inappropriate action in a familiar context
2. Cognitive confusion
3. Learner’s intrinsic dynamics compete with the
required task dynamics
Why negative transfer occurs
48
Transfer of Learning That Occurs Between Two Limbs
* Also known as intermanual transfer, cross-transfer or cross-education
* Transfer of skills learned from one side of the body to
the other
* Although the skill was originally learned and used on one side of the body, the other side of it has the potential to learn this same skill
Bilateral transfer
49
Process of Transforming To-Be-Remembered Information Into a Form That Can Be Stored in Memory
Encoding
50
Process of Placing Information in Long-Term
Memory
Storage
51
Process That Enables a Person to Transfer
Information From Working to Long-Term Memory
Rehearsal
52
Process of Searching Through LTM for
Information Needed for Present Use
Retrieval
53
Memory structure comprised of two functional systems
* Working memory (retains & uses)
* Long-term memory
54
* Storage of information
* Retrieval of information
* System specific functions
Memory Functions
55
used for short-term retention (usually less than twenty seconds) of information
Short Term Memory
56
similar to short term but retains and uses information
* Example - if a video game had the instructions “press A to jump,” short-term memory would retain that the game had instructed the player, while working memory would understand that pressing A will cause the player’s character to jump
Working Memory
57
retained over a long period of time, such as life experiences, knowledge of how to do tasks, and how to properly speak in a specific language
Long Term Memory
58
Memory System Associated with Sensory, Perceptual,
Attentional, and Short-Term Memory Processes
* Involved in all situations requiring temporary use and storage of information
* Function: Enables People to Respond to the Demands of a “Right Now” Situation
* Critical role in decision making, problem solving, movement
planning and execution
* Interacts with long-term memory
working memory
59
Serves as the More Permanent Storage Repository of
Information
* Function: Allows People to Have Information About
Specific Past Events as Well as General Knowledge
* Duration: Unknown Since We Cannot Satisfactorily
Measure Duration of Info in LTM
* Capacity: Relatively Unlimited
Long term memory
60
- Procedural
- Semantic
- Episodic
Three Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory
61
Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Information About “How to Do”
Specific Activities, e.g. Motor Skills
Procedural
62
Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Our General Knowledge About the
World Based Upon Experiences, e.g. Concepts
Semantic
63
Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Our Knowledge About Personally
Experienced Events
* Allows us to “travel back in time”
Episodic
64
* Observing Practice Performance
* Retention Tests
* Transfer Tests
* Coordination Dynamics
* Dual-Task Procedure
Learning assessment techniques
65
* The directing of attention to specific aspects of
our performance or performance environment
* Width of focus - Focus can be broad or narrow
* Direction of focus - Focus can be external or internal
Attentional Focus
66
The changing of attentional focus
Attention Switching
67
In the motor learning research literature, this term refers to "observable behavior"
perfromance
68
The most common performance measure used for inferring the amount of time required for action preparation
reaction time
69
Learner's goals in Gentiles model
fixation & diversification
70
The directing of attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment, or to action preparation activities
attentional focus
71
Performance of a new experience that is hindered by experience with a previous skill
negative transfer
72
The 3 stages a learner moves through according to Fitts and Posner
cognitive, associative, and autonomous
73
The activity that occurs between the intention to perform and the initiation of an action; sometimes, the term motor programming is used to refer to this
action preparation
74
The slowing of reaction time when a person must name a color's name but the color is different from the printed name, compared to when the printed name and its color are the same
Stroop effect
75
The same amount of bilateral transfer occurs from one limb to the other limb
symmetric bilateral transfer
76
Characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness, and cognitive effort as they relate to the performance of skills
attention
77
The time it takes for a person to make a decision increases as the amount of possible choices increases; the time it takes for a person to make a decision decreases as the amount of possible choices decrease
Hicks law
78
The knowledge that enables a person to know "how to do" a skill; this knowledge typically is difficult to verbalize or is not verbalizable
procedural knowledge
79
Performing a skill or component of a skill without attention capacity being required
automaticity
80
Stages of learning models
1. Fitts & Posner
2. Gentile's
3. Bernstein's
81
The causes of forgetting
- Trace decay
- Retroactive interference
- Proactive interference
82
Learning assessment techniques
- observable practice performance
- retention tests
- transfer test
- coordination dynamics
- dual-task procedure
83
Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously; also known as the bottleneck theory
Filter theory
84
A technique that attempts to get the eye to focus more instead of flicking about during coordination tasks
quiet eye training
85
Performance learning curves
- linear
- positive acceleration
- negative acceleration
86
A functional system in the structure of memory that operates to temporarily store and use recently presented information
working memory
87
A practiced skill test that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased
retention test
88
The influence of prior learning on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context
transfer of learning
89
Transfer of learning that occurs between limbs
bilateral transfer
90
3 types of reaction time situations
1. simple
2. choice
3. discrimination
91
Reaction time decreases with an increase in spatial compatibility between stimulus and response
stimulus-response compatibility
92
An example of a central resource capacity theory; equates attention with 'cognitive effort'
Kahneman's attention theory
93
The direction of attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment
attentional focus
94
3 types of memory systems in long-term memory
1. procedural
2. semantic
3. episodic
95
- increases as complexity of action increases
- decreases when the interval between the warning and go signal is more regular
- decreases with repetition
reaction time
96
2 performer characteristics that influence the preparation
1. alertness of the performer
2. attention focused on the signal rather than the movement
97
Consider the following performance situation: You are a basketball player guarding an opponent who has the ball. You know that about 80% of the time in this situation the player will move to your right and take a shot. So, you prepare to move in that direction. But, unexpectedly the player moves to your left. Which of the following describes your RT in this situation:
reaction time will be slower than if you had not prepared to move to the right
98
The term used to describe performing a skill or component of a skill without attention capacity being required
automaticity
99
The duration of the "quiet eye" period tends to be _ in elite performers compared to sub-elite performers:
longer
100
If you are asked to demonstrate how you tie your shoes, you would base your demonstration on knowledge stored in long-term memory in the:
procedural memory system
101
The most commonly accepted reason serial discrete motor skills seem to be forgotten more quickly than continuous motor skills is that serial discrete motor skills are:
largely verbal
102
When a person is asked to recall a movement they experienced, but had not been told to remember, the memory test is assessing _
incidental memory
103
Use of a transfer test evaluates this performance characteristic associated with motor skill learning:
adaptability
104
As a person learns a new skill the attention demand by the skill will:
decrease
105
2 important criteria for determining learning when assessing the dynamics of movement coordination are
1. the consistency
2. stability of the coordination patterns
106
As a person practices a skill, an important change that occurs is the capability to:
detect and correct errors
107
An important change in muscle activity that results from practice is that the activation pattern for agonist and antagonist muscle pairs becomes more _ from trial to trial:
consistent
108
The use of a virtual reality device is a good example of transfer of learning based on which of the following explanations:
similarity of skill or context components
109
Performance of a new experience that is hindered by experience with a previous skill is an example of _ transfer:
negative
110
newly learned patterns of coordination can _ patterns that were once stable
disrupt
