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Motor Development > EXAM #2 > Flashcards

EXAM #2 Flashcards

1
Q

Involves three stages of learning a motor skill
1. Cognitive stage
2. Associative stage
3. Autonomous stage

A

Fitts and Posner

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2
Q

Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problems/learning skill

A

Cognitive Stage

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3
Q

Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements; works to refine performance to be more consistent

A

Associative Stage

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4
Q

Fitts and Posner Proposed Motor Skill Learning - Involves Three Stages:
Final stage where performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of attention demanded)

A

Autonomous Stage

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5
Q

Gentile’s two-stage model:
* Getting the Idea of the Movement
* Learner Works to Achieve Two Goals:
* Organize movement pattern to enable some degree of
success achieving action goal
* Discriminate between regulatory and non regulatory
conditions in environmental context, i.e. pin position,
lane condition vs. crowd noise, score

A

Initial Stage

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6
Q

Gentile’s two-stage model: Later Stages
* Involves Learner Acquiring Three Characteristics:
* Adapting movement pattern to demands of any
performance situation
* Increase consistency of action goal achievement
* Perform with an economy of effort/ maximum
performance for the least energy expenditure

A

Fixation/Diversification

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7
Q

Unique Feature of Gentile’s “Later Stages”
* Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of skill
being learned
* _: fixation of movement pattern
* Develop optimal movement pattern to allow consistent
action goal achievement
* Stable/controlled conditions, i.e. training sessions

A

Closed skills

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8
Q

Unique Feature of Gentile’s “Later Stages”
* Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of skill
being learned
* _: diversification of movement pattern
* Develop flexible movement pattern that can adapt to
changing and novel environmental context conditions
* Constantly changing/unpredictable conditions, i.e. team sports

A

Open skills

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9
Q

Best Remembered for His Ideas About Freezing
& Freeing Degrees of Freedom
* Thought That Learning a Skill Was Similar to Solving a
Problem
* Described appropriate practice as a form of Repetition without Repetition

A

Bernstein

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10
Q

The time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response

A

Reaction Time

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11
Q

_ is the commonly used index of
the amount of preparation time

A

Reaction Time

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12
Q

_ occurs between action
Intention and Initiation

A

Action preparation

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13
Q

Reaction time decrease with increasing spatial compatibility between stimulus and response

A

Stimulus-Response Compatibility

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14
Q

Simon effect:
An easy to observe phenomenon
- occurs when there is a harmonious relation between what you observe and how you must respond to it

A

Stimulus-response compatibility

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15
Q
  • _ of Task Performance Related to Amount of Practice
  • Different Brain Areas Active When Tasks Are or Are Not _
  • Example: driving home
A
  • Automaticity
  • Automatized
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16
Q

Performance of a skill (or its parts) with little/no demand on attention

A

Automaticity

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17
Q

Number of Response Choices
* The time it takes for a person to make a decision increases as the amount of possible choices increase (longer to decide)
* The time it takes for a person to make a decision decreases as the amount of possible choices decrease (shorter to decide)
* Illustrates one’s ability to make decisions with different amounts of uncertainty

A

Hick’s Law

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18
Q

Six Characteristics of General Performance Characteristics of Skill Learning

A
  • Improvement
  • Consistency
  • Stability
  • Persistence
  • Adaptability
  • Reduced attention demands
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19
Q

Relation between colors and color names

A

Stroop Effect

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20
Q

Related to selective attention, which is the ability to respond to certain environmental stimuli while ignoring others

A

Stroop Effect

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21
Q

Line graph that plots performance measures
across practice trials or periods of time
* Provide Evidence of:
* Improvement
* Consistency

A

Performance Curves

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22
Q

General Trends in Performance Curves:
Proportional increases over trials or time

A

Linear

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23
Q

General Trends in Performance Curves:
Early improvement but slows later

A

Negatively Accelerated

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24
Q

General Trends in Performance Curves:
Slight improvement early but substantial improvement later

A

Positively Accelerated

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25
Q

General Trends in Performance Curves:
Combination of A, B, & C curves

A

Ogive or S-shaped

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26
Q

Strategies that Enhance Memory Performance:
* Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
* Person thinks of producing a metaphoric image related to the movement (e.g. drawing a bow in archery similar to beginning of movement to serve a volleyball)

A

Visual metaphoric imagery

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27
Q

Strategies that Enhance Memory Performance:
* Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
* Attach a specific label to the movement

A

Verbal label

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28
Q

Performance
* Execution of a skill at a specific time and in a
specific location
* Temporary
* May not be due to practice
* May be influenced by performance variables

A

Observable behavior

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29
Q

Learning
* Not directly observable
* Must be inferred from _ _
* Relatively permanent
* Due to practice
* Not influenced by performance variables

A

observable behavior

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30
Q

Attention theories:
* Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of inability to serially process multiple stimuli
* Everyone has a natural mental filter allowing certain
amounts of information (stimuli) through at a time
* Information is based on importance
* Bits and pieces of information may pass through

A

Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)

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31
Q

Attention theories:
* Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because
of limited availability of resources needed to carry out
tasks
* People have a limited amount of attention to devote to any one thing at any given moment
* i.e. resource capacity limits
* Simultaneous successful performance of multiple tasks can occur when resource capacity limits not exceeded
* A lot of competing information from different sources
can cause a person’s attention to reach its capacity
quickly

A

Resource Capacity Theories

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32
Q

Attention theories:
Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of attention resources for which all activities compete

A

Central Resource Capacity Theories

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33
Q

Attention theories:
An example of a central resource capacity theory
* Equates attention with “cognitive effort”
* Proposed flexible attention capacity limits
* There are limits to what we can attend to and process
at any one time

A

Kahneman’s Attention Theory

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34
Q

The Amount of Attention Capacity Available for a Specific Performance Situation Determined by the Person’s Motivation Level:
* Attention resources available (i.e. capacity) varies in relation to a person’s motivation
* Maximum amount available when motivation level is optimal for the situation

A

Kahneman’s Attention Theory

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35
Q

3 “Rules” People Use to Allocate Attention
Resources When Performing Multiple Tasks
* Ensure completion of at least one task
* Enduring dispositions: Involuntary allocation
* Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., “cocktail party
phenomenon”); partygoer can focus on a single
conversation in a noisy room
* Momentary intentions: Allocate attention according to instructions

A

Kahneman’s Attention Theory

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36
Q

Attention theories:
* Alternative to One Central Resource Theories
* Propose that we have several resources for attention
* Each source has a limited capacity
* The multiple sources based on specific information
processing need
* Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)
* Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)
* Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)
* Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends
on competition for attention resources within and
between the multiple sources

A

Multiple Resource Theories

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37
Q
  • Increasing a Movement’s Meaningfulness
  • Visual metaphoric imagery
  • The Intention to Remember
  • Subjective Organization
A

Strategies that Enhance Memory
Performance

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38
Q
  • Determines attention demands of the simultaneous
    performance of two different tasks
  • Primary task is the task of interest
  • Secondary task performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task
A

Dual-Task Procedure

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39
Q

Completing two tasks simultaneously
* Compare performance with single task conditions
* Higher when tasks are not competing with each other
– Reciting poetry while riding a bike
* Lower when tasks are competing with each other
– Reciting poetry while writing an essay
* Practicing a motor task under dual-task conditions can be
beneficial to motor learning when the secondary task is
difficult
* Example: agility ladder with ball

A

Dual-Task Procedure

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40
Q
  • Trace dacy
  • Retroactive Interference
  • Proactive Interference
A

Causes of forgetting

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41
Q

Causes of forgetting:
* new information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information; works backwards to interfere with earlier information
* EX: students learn state capitals one week, then learn world capitals the following week, this could cause confusing about the state capitals

A

Retroactive Interference

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42
Q

Causes of forgetting:
* old information interferes with the ability to remember new information
* EX: if a person knows the rules of rugby then started learning the rules of football, he may have trouble remembering the rules of football because they conflict with the
old information, i.e. rules of rugby

A

Proactive Interference

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43
Q

Causes of forgetting:
* something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical “memory trace” is formed in the brain
* over time this trace tends to disintegrate, fade away, unless it is occasionally used

A

Trace Decay

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44
Q

Influence of Previous Experience on:
* Learning a new skill
* Performing a skill in a new setting/context

A

Transfer of learning

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45
Q

Transfer of learning:
Similarity of Skill and Context Components
* Various ideas on what constitutes a component
* Roots in Thorndike’s “identical elements” theory
Similarity of Processing Requirements
* Transfer-appropriate processing view

A

Positive transfer of learning

46
Q

Transfer of learning:
Considered Rare and Temporary in Motor Learning
* Occurs When New Skill or Context Involves similar environmental context features but requires a different movement response
* Tennis swing vs. baseball swing
* Negative Effects Can Be Overcome with Practice
* Important for the Practitioner to be Aware That it
Could Cause Discouragement Early in Practice

A

Negative transfer of learning

47
Q

Three Main Reasons:
1. Established perception-action coupling elicits an
inappropriate action in a familiar context
2. Cognitive confusion
3. Learner’s intrinsic dynamics compete with the
required task dynamics

A

Why negative transfer occurs

48
Q

Transfer of Learning That Occurs Between Two Limbs
* Also known as intermanual transfer, cross-transfer or cross-education
* Transfer of skills learned from one side of the body to
the other
* Although the skill was originally learned and used on one side of the body, the other side of it has the potential to learn this same skill

A

Bilateral transfer

49
Q

Process of Transforming To-Be-Remembered Information Into a Form That Can Be Stored in Memory

A

Encoding

50
Q

Process of Placing Information in Long-Term
Memory

A

Storage

51
Q

Process That Enables a Person to Transfer
Information From Working to Long-Term Memory

A

Rehearsal

52
Q

Process of Searching Through LTM for
Information Needed for Present Use

A

Retrieval

53
Q

Memory structure comprised of two functional systems

A
  • Working memory (retains & uses)
  • Long-term memory
54
Q
  • Storage of information
  • Retrieval of information
  • System specific functions
A

Memory Functions

55
Q

used for short-term retention (usually less than twenty seconds) of information

A

Short Term Memory

56
Q

similar to short term but retains and uses information
* Example - if a video game had the instructions “press A to jump,” short-term memory would retain that the game had instructed the player, while working memory would understand that pressing A will cause the player’s character to jump

A

Working Memory

57
Q

retained over a long period of time, such as life experiences, knowledge of how to do tasks, and how to properly speak in a specific language

A

Long Term Memory

58
Q

Memory System Associated with Sensory, Perceptual,
Attentional, and Short-Term Memory Processes
* Involved in all situations requiring temporary use and storage of information
* Function: Enables People to Respond to the Demands of a “Right Now” Situation
* Critical role in decision making, problem solving, movement
planning and execution
* Interacts with long-term memory

A

working memory

59
Q

Serves as the More Permanent Storage Repository of
Information
* Function: Allows People to Have Information About
Specific Past Events as Well as General Knowledge
* Duration: Unknown Since We Cannot Satisfactorily
Measure Duration of Info in LTM
* Capacity: Relatively Unlimited

A

Long term memory

60
Q
  • Procedural
  • Semantic
  • Episodic
A

Three Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory

61
Q

Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Information About “How to Do”
Specific Activities, e.g. Motor Skills

A

Procedural

62
Q

Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Our General Knowledge About the
World Based Upon Experiences, e.g. Concepts

A

Semantic

63
Q

Types of Memory Systems in Long-Term Memory:
Stores Our Knowledge About Personally
Experienced Events
* Allows us to “travel back in time”

A

Episodic

64
Q
  • Observing Practice Performance
  • Retention Tests
  • Transfer Tests
  • Coordination Dynamics
  • Dual-Task Procedure
A

Learning assessment techniques

65
Q
  • The directing of attention to specific aspects of
    our performance or performance environment
  • Width of focus - Focus can be broad or narrow
  • Direction of focus - Focus can be external or internal
A

Attentional Focus

66
Q

The changing of attentional focus

A

Attention Switching

67
Q

In the motor learning research literature, this term refers to “observable behavior”

A

perfromance

68
Q

The most common performance measure used for inferring the amount of time required for action preparation

A

reaction time

69
Q

Learner’s goals in Gentiles model

A

fixation & diversification

70
Q

The directing of attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment, or to action preparation activities

A

attentional focus

71
Q

Performance of a new experience that is hindered by experience with a previous skill

A

negative transfer

72
Q

The 3 stages a learner moves through according to Fitts and Posner

A

cognitive, associative, and autonomous

73
Q

The activity that occurs between the intention to perform and the initiation of an action; sometimes, the term motor programming is used to refer to this

A

action preparation

74
Q

The slowing of reaction time when a person must name a color’s name but the color is different from the printed name, compared to when the printed name and its color are the same

A

Stroop effect

75
Q

The same amount of bilateral transfer occurs from one limb to the other limb

A

symmetric bilateral transfer

76
Q

Characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness, and cognitive effort as they relate to the performance of skills

A

attention

77
Q

The time it takes for a person to make a decision increases as the amount of possible choices increases; the time it takes for a person to make a decision decreases as the amount of possible choices decrease

A

Hicks law

78
Q

The knowledge that enables a person to know “how to do” a skill; this knowledge typically is difficult to verbalize or is not verbalizable

A

procedural knowledge

79
Q

Performing a skill or component of a skill without attention capacity being required

A

automaticity

80
Q

Stages of learning models

A
  1. Fitts & Posner
  2. Gentile’s
  3. Bernstein’s
81
Q

The causes of forgetting

A
  • Trace decay
  • Retroactive interference
  • Proactive interference
82
Q

Learning assessment techniques

A
  • observable practice performance
  • retention tests
  • transfer test
  • coordination dynamics
  • dual-task procedure
83
Q

Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously; also known as the bottleneck theory

A

Filter theory

84
Q

A technique that attempts to get the eye to focus more instead of flicking about during coordination tasks

A

quiet eye training

85
Q

Performance learning curves

A
  • linear
  • positive acceleration
  • negative acceleration
86
Q

A functional system in the structure of memory that operates to temporarily store and use recently presented information

A

working memory

87
Q

A practiced skill test that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased

A

retention test

88
Q

The influence of prior learning on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context

A

transfer of learning

89
Q

Transfer of learning that occurs between limbs

A

bilateral transfer

90
Q

3 types of reaction time situations

A
  1. simple
  2. choice
  3. discrimination
91
Q

Reaction time decreases with an increase in spatial compatibility between stimulus and response

A

stimulus-response compatibility

92
Q

An example of a central resource capacity theory; equates attention with ‘cognitive effort’

A

Kahneman’s attention theory

93
Q

The direction of attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment

A

attentional focus

94
Q

3 types of memory systems in long-term memory

A
  1. procedural
  2. semantic
  3. episodic
95
Q
  • increases as complexity of action increases
  • decreases when the interval between the warning and go signal is more regular
  • decreases with repetition
A

reaction time

96
Q

2 performer characteristics that influence the preparation

A
  1. alertness of the performer
  2. attention focused on the signal rather than the movement
97
Q

Consider the following performance situation: You are a basketball player guarding an opponent who has the ball. You know that about 80% of the time in this situation the player will move to your right and take a shot. So, you prepare to move in that direction. But, unexpectedly the player moves to your left. Which of the following describes your RT in this situation:

A

reaction time will be slower than if you had not prepared to move to the right

98
Q

The term used to describe performing a skill or component of a skill without attention capacity being required

A

automaticity

99
Q

The duration of the “quiet eye” period tends to be _ in elite performers compared to sub-elite performers:

A

longer

100
Q

If you are asked to demonstrate how you tie your shoes, you would base your demonstration on knowledge stored in long-term memory in the:

A

procedural memory system

101
Q

The most commonly accepted reason serial discrete motor skills seem to be forgotten more quickly than continuous motor skills is that serial discrete motor skills are:

A

largely verbal

102
Q

When a person is asked to recall a movement they experienced, but had not been told to remember, the memory test is assessing _

A

incidental memory

103
Q

Use of a transfer test evaluates this performance characteristic associated with motor skill learning:

A

adaptability

104
Q

As a person learns a new skill the attention demand by the skill will:

A

decrease

105
Q

2 important criteria for determining learning when assessing the dynamics of movement coordination are

A
  1. the consistency
  2. stability of the coordination patterns
106
Q

As a person practices a skill, an important change that occurs is the capability to:

A

detect and correct errors

107
Q

An important change in muscle activity that results from practice is that the activation pattern for agonist and antagonist muscle pairs becomes more _ from trial to trial:

A

consistent

108
Q

The use of a virtual reality device is a good example of transfer of learning based on which of the following explanations:

A

similarity of skill or context components

109
Q

Performance of a new experience that is hindered by experience with a previous skill is an example of _ transfer:

A

negative

110
Q

newly learned patterns of coordination can _ patterns that were once stable

A

disrupt

Motor Development (3 decks)

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