EXAM #1 Flashcards
1
Q
Two types of control systems
A
open-loop and closed-loop systems
2
Q
A motor skill that requires the simultaneous use of the two arms
- the skill may require the two arms to move with the same or different spatial and/or temporal characteristics
- Ex: washing hair, braiding hair, open containers
A
Bimanual coordination
3
Q
Skills that have a clear, definite, and identifiable beginning and end - simple and well-designed movements
- Ex: lifting a weight, throwing a dart, serving a tennis ball, swinging a golf club
A
Discrete motor skill
4
Q
Refers to the ability of a stationary object to balance
A
Static balance
5
Q
The ability of an object to balance while in motion or when switching between positions
A
Dynamic balance
6
Q
A measurement technique that records the electrical activity of a muscle or group of muscles
A
EMG (electromyography)
7
Q
Frontal lobe is responsible for
A
- reasoning
- motor skills
- higher-level cognition
- expressive language
8
Q
The interval of time between the onset of a signal (stimulus) and the initiation of a response
A
Reaction time
9
Q
Sensory neurons located in the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints
- These neurons pick up information about the body and limb position and changes in position
A
Proprioceptors
10
Q
The visual field outside the 2 to 5 degrees of central vision
A
peripheral vision
11
Q
The coordination of vision and movement
A
perception-action coupling
12
Q
A characteristic of motor skill performance in which the speed at which a skill is performed is influenced by movement accuracy demands
- The trade-off is that increasing speed yields decreasing accuracy, and vice versa
A
Speed-accuracy trade-off
13
Q
A mathematical model that predicts the average
movement time required to hit a target along a one-dimensional path is proportional to the distance of the target and the width of the target
A
Fitts Law
14
Q
The time interval involving both reaction time and movement time
- Ex: the time from the onset of a signal (stimulus) to the
completion of a response
A
Response time
15
Q
Area of vision
A
Occipital lobe
16
Q
Elevated ridges of the brain
A
Gyri
17
Q
Norephinephrine
A
neurotransmitter
18
Q
space between neurons
A
synaptic cleft
19
Q
Thalamus & hypothalamus are located here
A
diencephalon
20
Q
acetylcholine
A
neurotransmitter
21
Q
Relay station
A
thalamus
22
Q
brain of the brain
A
hypothalamus
23
Q
basic cell of the CNS
A
neuron
24
Q
Pain/touch/heat/cold
A
Parietal lobe
25
Lined cavities where CSF circulates
Ventricle
26
Hearing and smell
Temporal lobe
27
Serous coverings of the brain
meninges
28
Area responsible for balance
cerebrum
29
midbrain/pons/medulla
brainstem
30
Begins at the foramen magnum and an extension of the brain
spinal cord
31
Wide band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain
corpus callosum
32
Epinephrine
neurotransmitter
33
Largest part of the brain
cerebrum
34
Divisions of the brain
lobes
35
deep groves of the brain
fissures
36
Motor function and executive decision making
Frontal lobe
37
How our neuromuscular system functions to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a motor skill
Motor control
38
The acquisition of motor skills, the performance enhancement of learned or highly experienced motor skills, or the reacquisition of skills that are difficult to perform or cannot be performed because of injury, disease, and the like
Motor learning
39
Of interest are the behavioral and/or neurological changes that occur as a person learns a motor skill and the variables that influence those changes
Motor learning
40
Activities or tasks that require voluntary control over movements of the joints and body segments to achieve a goal
Motor skills
41
Motor learning and motor control contribute to _ _
Motor skill
42
Human development from infancy to old age with specific interest in issues related to either motor learning or motor control
- The products and underlying processes of motor behavior changes across a lifespan
Motor development
43
Factors that may affect motor development:
- _: change in physical size and dimensions
- _: cognitive, physical, and psychological changes regardless of age
- _: maturation from birth through physical decline, ending with death
- physical growth
- development
- aging
44
organized muscular function
Motor program
45
The patterning of the body and limb motions relative to the patterning of environmental objects and events
Coordination
46
The hypothesized memory-based mechanism responsible for adaptive and flexible qualities of human movement
Generalized motor program (GMP)
47
Proposed that each _ controls a class of actions, which are identified by common unchanging characteristics
GMP
48
Three critical elements of a skill
1. Perception
2. Decision
3. Motor control
49
Three critical elements of a skill:
1. _: perceiving the relevant environmental features
Perception
50
Three critical elements of a skill:
2. _: deciding what, when, and how to perform to achieve the goal
Decision
51
Three critical elements of a skill:
3. _: Producing organized muscular activity to generate movements that achieve the goal
Motor control
52
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: size of primary musculature required (two types)
1. gross motor skills
2. fine motor skills
53
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: size of primary musculature required
1. _: require the use of large musculature to achieve the goal of the skill (Ex: walking, jumping)
Gross motor skills
54
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: size of primary musculature required
2. _: require control of small muscles to achieve the goal of the skill (Ex: skills involving hand/eye coordination)
Fine motor skills
55
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Specificity of where movement begins or ends (3 types)
1. disrete motor skills
2. continuous motor skills
3. combination category (serial motor skills)
56
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Specificity of where movement begins or ends
1. _: specified beginning and end points, usually require a simple movement (Ex: flipping a light switch)
Discrete motor skills
57
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Specificity of where movement begins or ends
2. _: arbitrary beginning and end points, usually involve repetitive movements (Ex: steering a car)
Continuous motor skills
58
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Specificity of where movement begins or ends
3. _: involve a continuous series of discrete skills (Ex: shifting gears in a manual car)
Combination category (serial motor skills)
59
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Stability of the environmental context (3 types)
1. environmental context
2. closed motor skills
3. open motor skills
60
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Stability of the environmental context
1. _: The physical location/setting in which a skill is performed
- 3 specific features: supporting surface, objects, other people
environmental context
61
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Stability of the environmental context
2. _: involve a stationary supporting surface, object, and/or other people/animal; performer determines when to begin the action (Ex: picking up a cup while seated at a table)
Closed motor skills
62
Motor skill classification systems:
- One-dimensional system: Stability of the environmental context
3. _: involve supporting surface, object, and/or other people/animals in motion; environmental features determine when to begin the action (Ex: catching a thrown ball)
Open motor skills
63
A general trait or capacity of an individual that is determinant of the person's achievement potential for the performance of special skills
Ability
64
Abilities as individual difference variables:
- motor abilities establish _ _ for specific motor skills
- each motor skill requires specific motor abilities to successfully perform it
achievement potentials
65
Abilities as individual difference variables:
- if 2 people have the same
- amount of practice
- level & amount of instruction
- motivation to perform the skill
- then, _ _ will influence the level of performance success each person can/will achieve
motor abilities
66
Abilities as individual difference variables:
- Two theories
1. General motor ability hypothesis
2. Specificity of motor ability hypothesis
67
Abilities as individual difference variables:
1. _: many motor abilities are highly related and can be grouped as a singular, global motor ability
- all motor abilities are highly related to each other
- a person can be described as having an overall amount of general motor ability
General motor ability hypothesis
68
Abilities as individual difference variables:
2. _: many motor abilities are relatively independent in an individual
- each person varies in the amount of each ability
- a person's motor ability can be described only by a profile of amounts of each specific motor ability
Specificity of motor ability hypothesis
69
Brain: Cerebral cortex
- function:
- initiation and coordination of movements for fine motor skills
- postural coordination
primary motor cortex
70
Brain: Cerebral cortex
- function:
- organization of movements before they are initiated
- rhythmic coordination during movement
- enables transitions between sequential movements of a serial motor skill (Ex: playing piano)
- control of movement based on observation of another person performing a skill
premotor area
71
Brain: Cerebral cortex
- function:
- sequential movements
- preparation & organization of movement
supplementary motor area
72
Brain: Diencephalon
- _: a type of relay station - receives and integrates sensory info from spinal cord & brainstem; sends info to cerebral cortex
- important role in control of attention, mood, and perception of pain
thalamus
73
Brain: Diencephalon
- _: critical center for the control of the endocrine system and body homeostasis
hypothalamus
74
Brain:
- functions:
- involved in control of smooth and accurate movements
- clumsy movement results from dysfunction
- involved in control of eye/hand coordination, movement timing, posture
- serves as a type of movement error detection and correction system
- receives copy of motor neural signals sent from motor cortex to muscles (efference copy)
- involved in learning motor skills
cerebellum
75
Brain: Brainstem
- functions:
- involved in control of various body functions (Ex: chewing) and balance
Pons
76
Brain: Brainstem
- functions:
- regulatory center for internal physiologic processes (Ex: breathing)
medulla
77
Brain: Brainstem
- functions:
- integrator of sensory and motor info; inhibits/activates neural signals to skeletal muscles
reticular formation
78
Brain:
- functions:
- receives info from cerebral cortex and brainstem; sends info to brainstem and cerebral cortex via thalamus
- involves control of movement initiation, antagonist muscles during a movement and force
Basal Ganglia
79
Brain:
- functions:
- higher cognitive functions
- memory, emotions, impulse control, problem solving, social interaction, and motor function
frontal lobe
80
Brain:
- Functions:
- processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory
temporal lobe
81
Brain:
- functions:
- visual perception, including color, for, and motion
occipital lobe
82
Brain:
- functions:
- visuospatial processing, distance & depth perception, color determination, object and face recognition, and memory formation
parietal lobe
83
Nerve cell
neuron
84
- Basic component of the nervous system
- Range in size from 4 to 100 microns - 1 micron = 0.0001 cm
neuron
85
General structure of a neuron: (3 major parts)
- cell body
- dendrites
- axon
86
Neuron general structure:
- contains nucleus
cell body
87
Neuron general structure:
- extensions from cell body; range from 1 to thousands per neuron
- receive information from other cells
dendrites
88
Neuron general structure:
- extensions from cell body: one per neuron with branches (known as collaterals)
- sends information from neuron
Axon
89
Types of neurons (3)
1. sensory neurons
2. motor neurons
3. interneurons
90
Type of neuron:
- also known as afferent neurons
- send information to CNS from sensory receptors
- unipolar = 1 axon; no dendrites
- cell body and most of the axon located in PNS; only axon central process enters CNS
sensory neurons
91
Type of neuron:
- also known as efferent neurons
- alpha motor neurons: predominantly in spinal cord axons synapse on skeletal muscles
- gamma motor neurons: intrafusal fibers of skeletal muscle
Motor neurons
92
Type of neuron:
- specialized neurons that originate and terminate in the brain or spinal cord
- functions as connections between:
- axons from the brain and motor neurons
- axons from sensory nerve and the spinal nerves ascending to the brain
interneurons
93
Central nervous system:
4 structures most directly involved in the control of voluntary movement
1. cerebrum
2. diencephalon
3. cerebellum
4. brainstem
94
Type of control systems:
- does not use feedback
- control center provides all the information for effectors to carry out movement (Ex: traffic light - system continues to sequence lights even if there is an accident)
- effective as long as things go as expected
- ongoing movements cannot be modified if there are unexpected changes in the environment
- inflexible
- most effective in stable, predictable environments
Open-loop systems
95
Type of control system:
- uses feedback
- control center issues information to effectors sufficient only to initiate movement
- relies on feedback to continue and terminate movement (Ex: running, driving a car)
- feedback: go faster or slower
- flexible
- involves error detection and correction to meet goal demands
closed-loop system
96
Degrees of freedom:
Russian neurophysiologist, focuses on the study of the functioning on the nervous stem; pioneer in the field of motor control and motor learning
Nikolai Bernstein
97
Number of independent elements in a system and the ways each element can act
Degrees of freedom (df)
98
How to control the df to make a complex system act in a specific way (Ex: the control of a helicopter's flight or the control of a body)
Degree of freedom problem
99
Involves determining how to constrain the system's (body's many degrees of freedom so that it can produce the specific result
Degrees of freedom problem as it relates to motor control and learning
100
The perception of limb, body, and head movement characteristics; ability to know where and how your body is oriented in your surroundings
- you can tell where different parts of your body are located even if your eyes are closed or you are standing in a dark room
proprioception
101
CNS receives proprioception information from sensory neural pathways that begin in specialized sensory neurons known as proprioceptors
neural basis of proprioception
102
Three primary types of proprioceptors
1. Muscle spindles
2. Golgi-tendon organ (GTO)
3. Joint receptors
103
Primary type of proprioceptors
1. _: in most skeletal muscles in a capsule of specialized muscle fibers and sensory neurons
- intrafused fibers
- life in parallel with extrafusal muscle fibers
- mechanoreceptors that detect changes in muscle fiber length (Ex: stretch) and velocity (Ex: rate of stretch)
- function:
- feedback mechanism to CNS to maintain intended limb movement, position, direction, and velocity
muscle spindles
104
Primary type of proprioceptors
2. _: in skeletal muscle near insertion of tendon
- detect changes in muscle tension
- poor detectors of muscle length changes
Gologi-tendon Organ (GTO)
105
Primary type of proprioceptors
3. _: provides the brain with feedback information concerning the position and movement of the limbs and joints
- located in a joint, monitor stretch in the capsule of synovial joints (joins bones or cartilage with a fibrous joint capsule)
- types of receptors - free nerve endings, golgi type endings Ruffini endings, and paciniform endings
Joint receptors
106
Proprioception influences
- movement accuracy (target and spatial-temporal accuracy)
- timing of onset of motor commands
- coordination of body and/or limb segments (target and spatial-temporal coupling between limbs)
107
Both eyes are used separately
- field of view is increased
- can see two separate images at the same time
- eyes on the same side of the head
monocular vision
108
Using two eyes with overlapping fields of view, allowing good perception of depth
- coordination of two eyes both focusing on an object, perceiving a single visual image
- eye on front of head
- important for depth-perception with 3-dimensional features involved in performance situation
Binocular vision
109
Detects info beyond the central limits (upper limit typically ~ 200 degrees)
- provides info about the environmental context and the moving limbs
- when we move through an environment, peripheral vision is particularly important for utilizing optical flow
peripheral vison
110
moving pattern of light rays reflected from environment that strike the retina
optical flow
111
Sometimes called foveal vision, eye focused straight ahead
- provides specific information to allow us to achieve action goals
- for reaching and grasping an object - regulatory conditions (Ex; size & shape of an object specify how to move to and grasp an object)
- for walking on a pathway - specific pathways info needed to stay on the pathway, avoid obstacles
central vision
112
Primary role is to connect the CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
113
Skin receptors
- mechanoreceptors located in the dermis layer of skin
- greatest concentration in fingertips
- provide CNS with temperature, pain and movement info
neural basis of touch
114
Vision and motor control:
- _ is our preferred source of sensory information
- evidence from everyday experiences (Ex: beginning typists look at their fingers)
vision
115
Aspects to consider for _ and _ _:
- monocular vs binocular vision
- central and peripheral vision
- two visual systems for motor control
- perception-action coupling
- amount of time required for vision-based movement corrections
- time-to-contact: the optical variable tau
vison and motor control
116
Typical research technique: compare performance of task involving fingers before and after anesthetizing fingers/loss of feeling
Roles of tactile info in motor control
117
Roles of tactile info in motor control:
- research shows tactile sensory info influences movement
- accuracy
- consistency
- timing
- force adjustments
118
Speed-accuracy skills
Fitt's law
119
Fitt's law:
Paul Fitt's (1954) showed we could mathematically predict movement (MT) for speed-accuracy skills
- Know the spatial dimensions of two variables:
1. movement distance
2. target distance
120
Application of Fitt's law to non-laboratory skills
- research demonstrated that Fitt's law predicts movement time for various non-laboratory skills like:
- dart throwing
- moving a cursor on a computer screen
- reaching and grasping containers of different sizes
121
General term for actions involving reaching for a grasping objects
Prehension
122
Prehension three components
1. transport
2. grasp
3. object manipulation
123
Prehension three components
1. _: movement of the hand to the object
transport
124
Prehension three components
2. _: the hand taking hold of the object
grasp
125
Prehension three components
3. _: hand carrying out the intended use of the object (Ex: drinking from it, moving it to another)
object manipulation
