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exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what happens to diploid organisms?

A

the recombine (sex) and create new genotypes

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2
Q

what are the two equations for HW

A

p+q=1
p^2+2pq+q^2=1

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3
Q

what is the equation for a HWE with 3 alleles

A

p^2+q^2+r^2+2pq+2pr+2qr

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4
Q

what is the equation for a HWE with n alleles

A

p^2+q^2+r^2+s^2+t^2+N^2+2pq+2pr+2ps+2pt+2pN+2qr+2qs+2qt+2qN+2rs+2rt+2rN+2st+2sN+2tN

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5
Q

what is the HWE equation for a polyploidy individual

A

(p+q)^c

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6
Q

what does c represent in the polyploid equation

A

number of chromosomes

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7
Q

what is the total number of alleles in a diploid organism

A

the total number of individuals x2

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8
Q

the total number of dominate alleles at a locus is _ alleles for each homozygote and _ for each heterozygote. the same goes for the _____________ genotype.

A

2; 1; recessive

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9
Q

is a population like this: AA=0.64, Aa=0.32, aa=0; in HWE?

A

no, because it does not equal 1

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10
Q

true or false: some loci can be out of HWE while other loci are in HWE

A

true

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11
Q

what are qualitative traits? give examples

A

traits that are affected by a few genes that can be categorized, without environmental effects
coat color, horns, genetic defects

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12
Q

what are two types of qualitative genetic defects?

A

spider syndrome (splayed legs) and curly calf syndrome (calf curls).

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13
Q

what can be used to determine genotypical diseases

A

genetic testing

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14
Q

define polygenic (quantitative) traits. give examples

A

traits affected by many genes; no single gene has an overriding effect, and it is affected by the environment
milk production, growth rate, birthweight, dystocia

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15
Q

how would one describe polygenic traits

A

with numbers and ranges

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16
Q

P (phenotype) = what?

A

μ+G+E

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17
Q

what does P stand for in P=μ+G+E

A

the phenotypic value for a given trait

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18
Q

what does μ stand for in P=μ+G+E

A

the population mean phenotypes value for the trait of all animals in the population

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19
Q

what does G stand for in P=μ+G+E

A

the genotypic value of the animal for the trait

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20
Q

what does E stand for in V= P=μ+G+E

A

effect of environmental factors on the phenotype of animal

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21
Q

G+E=

A

0

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22
Q

define genotypic value

A

the overall effect of all the genes carried by the animal for a specific trait

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23
Q

is genotypic value measurable?

A

not directly

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24
Q

what makes up the genotypic value

A

the breeding value and gene combo value

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25
Q

define breeding value

A

part of the genotypic value that can be transmitted to offspring from parents

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26
Q

what makes up BV?

A

it is the sum of effects on individual genes

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27
Q

define considered parental value

A

value of an individual as a contributor of genes for the next generation

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28
Q

BV must be estimated for each __________ before parents are chosen

A

individual

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29
Q

P=

A

μ+BV+GCV+E

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30
Q

what are quantitative traits in beef cattle

A

carcass yield
growth traits
reproduction traits

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31
Q

describe carcass traits

A

IMF
fat thickness
ribeye area

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32
Q

give examples of growth traits

A

feed efficiency
birth weight
weaning weight
yearly weight
average daily gains

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33
Q

describe reproduction traits

A

scrotum circumference
heifer pregnancy
1st service conception
rebreeding rate

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34
Q

describe the quantitative traits in dairy cattle

A

milk yield
milk components (fat% and protein %)
type trait (udder depth; stature)
angularity
teat length
rear leg angularity
heifer pregnancy
FSC
days open (<90 days)

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35
Q

how many genes does an individual transmit it its offspring?

A

half of them

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36
Q

what are PD and TA? what animals are they used for?

A

PD- progeny difference; meat animals
TA- transmission ability; dairy animals

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37
Q

PD and TA are not ___________ ______________, so they can be predicted by ______________ ____.

A

directly measurable; performance data

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38
Q

what is EPD

A

estimated progeny difference

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39
Q

what is PTA

A

predicted transmission ability

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40
Q

EPD and PTA are actually the ____, just for __________ ________

A

same; different animals

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41
Q

define the BV of offspring

A

sum of the additive effects of the genes inherited from both parents

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42
Q

what is the equation for BV of offspring

A

(BVsire-BVdam)/2

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43
Q

define gene combination value

A

due to dominance and epistasis
not transported to offspring

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44
Q

which genes survive segregation and independent assortment

A

individual genes

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45
Q

what does PA stand for

A

performance potential

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46
Q

what is PA important for

A

repeating traits, like milk production

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47
Q

what does G do in respect to PA

A

remain with the animal its whole life

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48
Q

can E factors permanently affect PA?

A

yes

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49
Q

what does Ep stand for

A

permanent environment effects

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50
Q

what is an example of Ep

A

nutrition at early stages of life
permanent problem in the udder

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51
Q

what does Et stand for

A

temporary environmental effects

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52
Q

what is an example of Et?

A

forage quality
weather
management

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53
Q

what does PA=?

A

BV+GCV+Ep

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54
Q

can two individuals have the same BV? if so, how?

A

yes, if the have the same sire and dam

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55
Q

what is MPPA? what is it used for

A

most probable producing ability
used to predict the animals next record

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56
Q

what are the three steps for statistics and describe them

A

objectively evaluate numbers
whether or not an animal has the right genes
describe population
sample statistic
estimate unknown value
breeding value of sire and dam

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57
Q

define variation

A

the raw material a breeder available for herd improvement

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58
Q

what happens if there is no variation

A

there is no improvement

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59
Q

describe discontinuous variation

A

qualitative traits
few, discrete genes
phenotype is not greatly influenced by environment

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60
Q

describe continuous variation

A

quantitative traits
many genes
many small gradations
economically important traits
highly complex

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61
Q

define sample

A

a random group used to inference a population

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62
Q

define population parameter

A

numerical descriptive measure for a population

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63
Q

what does population parameter do

A

describes what makes one population different from another

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64
Q

define variance

A

spread around a mean

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65
Q

define sample statistic

A

numerical descriptive measure for a sample estimated from population parameter

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66
Q

define central tendency

A

graph where values cluster at midpoint and thin out around ends, the central position

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67
Q

what are the three measures of central tendencies

A

mean, median, mode

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68
Q

define x̄

A

sample mean

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69
Q

define μ

A

population mean

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70
Q

define Σ

A

sum

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71
Q

define n

A

number of observations in the sample

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72
Q

x̄=?

A

(Σx)/n

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73
Q

define variance

A

a measure of distribution
deviation about the mean

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74
Q

S^2=?

A

Σ(x-x̄)^2/n-1

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75
Q

a homogenous population will have __________ variance

A

little

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76
Q

what are the four steps to compute variance

A
  1. find the mean for each observation
  2. square the answer
  3. sum all answers together
  4. divide by n-1
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77
Q

what does standard deviation depict

A

how much variation exists for a trait

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78
Q

define standard error

A

how accurate mean has been estimated

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79
Q

SE=?

A

SD/√n

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80
Q

define correlations

A

measures strength of relationship between two variables

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81
Q

what does correlation do?

A

determines if one trait of an animal is associated with another

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82
Q

what is the correlation coefficient

A

r

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83
Q

what is the range of correlation

A

-1 to 1

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84
Q

±0.1-0.2 is ___ correlation

A

low

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85
Q

±0.21-0.4 is _______ correlation

A

moderate

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86
Q

±0.41-0.99 is ____ correlation

A

high

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87
Q

0 is __ correlation

A

no

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88
Q

define significant correlation

A

high probability there is a real association between traits

89
Q

what leads to genetic correlation

A

gene linkage and pleiotropy

90
Q

true or false: correlation is unitless

A

true

91
Q

in correlation, one trait does not…

A

determine another trait

92
Q

there is no ___________ or _______________ variable in correlation

A

dependent, independent

93
Q

define maternal calving

A

ease of sire’s daughter giving birth

94
Q

define direct calving

A

ease of cows impregnated by sire giving birth

95
Q

r=?

A

(ΣXY-(ΣXΣY/N))/√(ΣX^2-(ΣX)^2/N)(ΣY^2-(ΣY)^2/N)

96
Q

what are the three types of correlation

A

rp- phenotypic correlation
rg- genetic correlation
re- environmental correlation

97
Q

define phenotypic correlation

A

measure of strength of relationship between performance in one trait and performance in another

98
Q

define genetic correlation

A

measures strength of relationship between breeding value of one trait and breeding value for another

99
Q

in genetic correlation selection of one trait…

A

leads to selection of another trait

100
Q

define environmental correlation

A

measure of strength of relationship between environmental effects

101
Q

define the regression coefficient

A

measures change in Y response over unit change in X

102
Q

regression coefficient is a given ________ of values

A

range

103
Q

regression can be __________ or ___________

A

positive, negative

104
Q

regression is used to predict one _________ based on another

A

value

105
Q

ŷ=?

A

a+bx

106
Q

what is ŷ

A

predicted value of Y

107
Q

what is ȳ

A

mean of y observations

108
Q

what is a

A

y-axis intercept

109
Q

what is b

A

regression coefficient

110
Q

what is x

A

the number of observations

111
Q

what is x̄

A

mean of x observations

112
Q

what does a greater slope mean

A

a closer association between two traits

113
Q

for observations ____ is better, but for variance degrees ____ is better

A

more; less

114
Q

define regression

A

the average or expected change in Y over the unit change in X

115
Q

true or false: regression is expressed in original units of measure

A

true

116
Q

what is Byx

A

the regression of y and x

117
Q

what is regression

A

the assumption of cause vs. effect

118
Q

what is X

A

the cause/independent variable

119
Q

what is Y

A

effect/dependent variable

120
Q

when is regression used?

A

when predicting numerical value of one trait from phenotypic value of another

121
Q

what are the two main types of mating systems

A

random and nonrandom

122
Q

what are the 2 main strategies for genetic change

A

selection and mating systems

123
Q

define selection

A

effects allelic frequencies

124
Q

define mating systems

A

effects genotypic frequencies

125
Q

describe selection

A

choosing parents for the next generation for gene contribution

126
Q

what is the goal of selection

A

increase desired alleles and decreases undesired alleles

127
Q

describe mating systems

A

choosing which males mate with which females with no further change in allele frequency

128
Q

what does inbreeding do

A

increase homozygosity and inbreeding depression

129
Q

what does outbreeding do

A

increases heterozygosity and hybrid vigor

130
Q

define positive assertive mating

A

individuals that look alike to increase homozygosity

131
Q

define negative assertive mating

A

individuals are not phenotypically similar to increase heterozygosity

132
Q

what is genetic relationship based on

A

pedigree

133
Q

define inbreeding coefficient

A

the probability that 2 alleles at a locus are identical by descent

134
Q

define phenotypic similarity

A

mating males and females with close phenotypic resemblances

135
Q

what is the goal of nonrandom mating

A

to alter genotypic frequencies

136
Q

what is the goal of positive assertive mating

A

increase homozygosity

137
Q

what is the goal of negative assertive mating

A

increase heterozygosity

138
Q

true or false: the sire and dam are usually related in inbreeding

A

true

139
Q

what does it mean if two closely related individuals are mated

A

the inbreeding will be severe

140
Q

what is the inbreeding coefficient

A

Fx

141
Q

what are pedigrees converted into

A

arrow diagrams

142
Q

how many times can an individual appear in an arrow diagram

A

only once

143
Q

what is a Mendelian segregation

A

when each arrow leads away from an individual

144
Q

define common ancestor

A

common to one or more individuals in an arrow diagram, usually to sire and dam of offspring

145
Q

what is IBD

A

identical by descent

146
Q

what is IBS

A

identical by state

147
Q

define line breeding

A

a less intense form of inbreeding for a particular trait
concentrates on genes from a common ancestor

148
Q

what is line breeding used commonly in

A

the horse industry

149
Q

what are the six effects of inbreeding

A

prepotency
expression of deleterious recessive alleles
inbreeding coefficient
tends to fix traits in a population
concentrates genes
increase probability of getting similar genes from ancestor

150
Q

define prepotency

A

uniformness between offspring and parents
homozygosity

151
Q

describe expression of deleterious recessive alleles

A

gives inbreeding a bad reputation
increases the expression of detrimental genes, does not create them

152
Q

describe inbreeding coefficient

A

quantitative traits that decrease inbreed performance

153
Q

describe polygenic traits and give examples

A

small individual effects on genes, but when added become detrimental
ex: repro, production, product quantity

154
Q

what is the equation of Fx

A

Σ0.5^n1+n2+1(1+Fa)

155
Q

define genetic relationship

A

the proportion of genes two individuals have in common

156
Q

what is the range of the genetic relationship

A

0-1

157
Q

what does Rxy represent

A

the relationship between x and y

158
Q

Rxy=?

A

(Σ0.5^n+1(1+Fa))/√ ((1+Fx)(1+Fy))

159
Q

define outbreeding

A

mating of individuals less closely related genetically than average

160
Q

where is outbreeding used

A

in the commercial meat animal production

161
Q

define within breeding

A

a crossing of inbred lines

162
Q

where is within breeding used

A

the poultry industry

163
Q

define grading up

A

mating purebred males with non purebred females in an attempt to make a purebred population

164
Q

how do you find the A in grading up? the b?

A

divide the precent by 2 and add fifty; divide percent by two.

165
Q

define crossbreeding

A

crossing different breeds

166
Q

define specie cross

A

breeding closely related species

167
Q

what does specie crosses increase?

A

hybrid vigor and heterosis

168
Q

what do Angus and brahman produce

A

a combo of growth, carcass, hardiness and adaptability

169
Q

outbreeding is the __________ of inbreeding

A

opposite

170
Q

what does outbreeding do with deleterious alleles?

A

it masks them, not delete them

171
Q

what is the phenotype in outbreeding

A

hybrid vigor and heterosis

172
Q

define heterosis

A

superiority of many traits of the offspring from outbreeding

173
Q

% heterosis=

A

(ave crossbred-ave purebred)/ave purebred x 100

174
Q

crossbreds are…

A

superior and more productive

175
Q

what should crossbreeding result in

A

a superior crossbred

176
Q

what does outbreeding try to increase

A

merit

177
Q

what is the goal of outbreeding

A

to improve crossbred animal, not the purebred

178
Q

who uses crossbreeding most

A

commercial producers

179
Q

crossbreds will have a greater ___ ________ _____ than the best average purebred

A

net economic merit

180
Q

define breed complementation

A

combining desirable characteristics of 2+ breeds in an offspring

181
Q

what are the characteristics of Angus

A

maturity, fertility, milk production, marbling

182
Q

what create efficiency

A

breed complementation and heterosis

183
Q

what does the degree of heterosis and complementarity depend on

A

genetic relationship of parents
h^2 and ability to measure a trait

184
Q

the higher the h^2 the ________ the heterosis

A

lower

185
Q

what is the general use of crossbreeding

A

the maximum production of offspring

186
Q

describe commercial cow/calf crossbreeding

A

almost all commercial cows are crossbred
very common in beef

187
Q

describe swine crossbreeding

A

crossing inbred lines to maximize repro and growth

188
Q

define reciprocal recurrent selection

A

a system of selection for increasing the combining ability for 2+ lines that have demonstrated the combine well

189
Q

define development of superior inbred lines

A

crossing more genetically diverse lines of two breeds

190
Q

define gca

A

general combining ability

191
Q

define sca

A

specific combining ability

192
Q

what is the net result of crossbreeding

A

development of genetically diverse inbred lines
better-performing crossbred offspring with greater heterosis
lines can cross with inbred lines

193
Q

describe poultry crossbreeding

A

meat breeds are crossed for growth rates

194
Q

describe dairy crossbreeding

A

within breeds, not between

195
Q

what are development breeds used for

A

specific purposes and market

196
Q

what does hybrid vigor produce in dairy cows

A

increased fertility
increased health and survivability

197
Q

why is heterosis low in wool sheep

A

because the h^2 is high

198
Q

what are the systems of crossbreeding (5 steps)

A

define objectives
breeds
herd size
implementation cost vs expected return
nothing is free

199
Q

define objectives

A

traits of interest and complementarity

200
Q

describe breeds

A

compatibility and availability

201
Q

describe herd size

A

larger is better, but more complicated

202
Q

describe implementation cost vs expected return

A

if making money using a certain system, why change it?
crossbreeds can be more expensive than purebreds

203
Q

describe nothing is free

A

increased performance will require more feed/nutrients

204
Q

what are swine categorizable for?

A

maternal and paternal

205
Q

what are maternal swine breeds

A

yorkshire, landrace, and chester white

206
Q

what are paternal swine breeds

A

duroc, hampshire, spots

207
Q

what is the goal of crossbreeding

A

to increase heterosis

208
Q

what are the three main types of crossbreeding

A

terminal
rotational
rotaterminal

209
Q

describe terminal crossbreeding

A

all offspring are sold to market
offspring are uniform

210
Q

describe rotational crossbreeding

A

rotates between 2-4 breeds
keep offspring
no uniformity

211
Q

what is a downside to rotational

A

all animals will be crossbred at some point

212
Q

describe rotaterminal

A

mix of rotation and terminal
some offspring are kept, some are sold
males produce good maternal females

213
Q

what is the major genetic limitation of terminal

A

there is no benefit from maternal heterosis

214
Q

what is the major management limitation of terminal

A

female replacements must be purchased

215
Q

describe a three breed terminal cross

A

two maternal breeds create F1
chosen for growth and carcass traits

216
Q

F1 is ___________ ____________ to the two parent breeds

A

genetically superior

217
Q

what are maternal traits

A

adaptability to environment
high reproductive merit
milk production
mothering ability

218
Q

rotational cross breeding does not…

A

benefit from maximum potential heterosis

219
Q

why are 4 breed rotations better than 3 breed rotations? why are they worse?

A

they retain heterosis; it is more complex

Genetics (5 decks)

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