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Bio 251 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Synarthroses

A

Immovable Joint

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2
Q

Ampiarthroses

A

Semi-movable joint

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3
Q

Diarthroses/Synovial

A

Freely movable joint

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4
Q

Where are synovial joints located?

A

At the end of long bones such as femurs, tibias, humerus, and radius

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5
Q

Articular capsule

A

Joint capsule that surrounds synovial joints

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6
Q

What are synovial joints composed of ?

A

Synovial membrane, synovial fluid, and articular cartilage

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7
Q

Meniscus

A

Accessory structure of the knee joint

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8
Q

Functions of synovial fluid

A

Lubrication, nutrient distribution, and shock absorption

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9
Q

Functions of articular cartilage

A

Covers articulating surfaces and prevents direct contact between bones

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10
Q

Types of intervertebral joints

A

First two cervical vertebrae are joined by a synovial joint
Synovial joints lie between adjacent processes
Adjacent vertebral bodies form symphyses

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11
Q

Structure of anulus fibrosus

A

Tough outer layer of fibrocartilage

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12
Q

Function of anulus fibrosus

A

Attaches disc to vertebrae

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13
Q

Structure of nucleus pulposus

A

Elastic, gelatinous core

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14
Q

Function of nucleus pulposus

A

Absorbs shocks

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15
Q

Buldging discs

A

Bulge in anulus fibrosus that invades vertebral canal

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16
Q

Herniated discs

A

Nucleus pulposes breaks through anulus fibrosus and compresses spinal nerves

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17
Q

Location of ACL

A

Anterior tibia to posterior femur

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18
Q

Function of ACL

A

Keeps the tibia from moving forward

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19
Q

Location of PCL

A

Posterior tibia to anterior femur

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20
Q

Function of PCL

A

Keeps tibia from moving back

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21
Q

Which ligaments stabilize the knee joint?

A

Tibia collateral ligament (ACL) and fibular collateral ligament (MCL)

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22
Q

Classifications of menisci

A

Medial and lateral

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23
Q

What are the muscles of the rotator cuff?

A

Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis

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24
Q

What is arthritis?

A

All rheumatic diseases that affect synovial joints

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25
Q

Osteoarthritis

A

Caused by mechanical stresses of the joint surfaces

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26
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis

A

Immune system attacks joint tissue

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27
Q

Gouty arthritis

A

Crystals of uric acid form within synovial fluid

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28
Q

Neurons

A

Brain cell that sends an electrical impulse in one direction

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29
Q

Most common neuron?

A

Multipolar neuron

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30
Q

Pathway of an electrical impulse

A

Presynaptic cell -> synapse -> postsynaptic neuron

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31
Q

Location of neuroglia

A

Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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32
Q

Contents of central nervous system

A

Astrocytes, ependymal, oligodendrocytes, and microglia

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33
Q

Astrocytes

A

Maintain blood brain barrier, provides structural support, regulate ion, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentrations, absorb and recycle neurotransmitters, form scar tissue after injury

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34
Q

Ependymal cells

A

Line ventricles (brain) and central canal (spinal cord), assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid.

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35
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Myelinate central nervous system axons and provide structural framework

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36
Q

Microglia

A

Remove cell debris, waste, and pathogens by phagocytoses

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37
Q

Contents of the peripheral nervous system

A

Satellite cell and Schwann cells

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38
Q

Satellite cells

A

Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, regulate O2, CO2, nutrient, and neurotransmitter levels around neurons in ganglia

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39
Q

Schwann cells

A

Surround all axons in peripheral nervous system, responsible for myelination of peripheral axons, participate in repair process after injury

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40
Q

Location of CNS

A

Brain and spinal cord

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41
Q

Location of PNS

A

Nervous tissue outside of the CNS and ENS

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42
Q

Chemically gated ion channel

A

Opens in presence of ligand at a binding site

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43
Q

Voltage-gated ion channel

A

Opens with changes in membrane potential (-60 mV)

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44
Q

Mechanically gated ion channel

A

Opens in response to the distortion of the membrane

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45
Q

Polarization

A

Neuronal polarization establishes distinct molecular structures to generate a single axon and multiple dendrites.

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46
Q

Depolarization

A

An all-or-nothing event that is initiated by the opening of sodium ion channels within the plasma membrane. +30mV

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47
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

When the membrane potential becomes more negative at a particular spot on the neuron’s membrane

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48
Q

Graded potential vs action potential

A

The main difference between graded potential and action potential is that graded potentials are the variable-strength signals that can be transmitted over short distances whereas action potentials are large depolarizations that can be transmitted over long distances

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49
Q

What is the treshold?

A

The critical level to which a membrane potential must be depolarized to initiate an action potential. -55mV

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50
Q

Function of a dendrite

A

Recieves information

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51
Q

Cell body of a neuron

A

Processes and integrates information

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52
Q

Function of an axon

A

Carries the information along long distances

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53
Q

Function of an axon terminal

A

Transmits information to next cell in the chain

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54
Q

Where does continuous propagation occur?

A

Unmyelinated axons

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55
Q

Where does salutatory propagation occur?

A

Myelinated axons

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56
Q

How does myelin affect action potential?

A

Myelin makes it go faster

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57
Q

Where are the checkpoints?

A

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

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58
Q

Size of type A fibers

A

Large diameters

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59
Q

Myelination status of type A fibers

A

Myelinated

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60
Q

Relative speed of type A fibers

A

Fast

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61
Q

Size of type B fibers

A

Small diameter

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62
Q

Myelination status of type B fibers

A

Myelinated

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63
Q

Relative speed of type B fibers

A

Medium

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64
Q

Size of type C fibers

A

Small diameter

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65
Q

Myelination status of type C fibers

A

Unmyelinated

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66
Q

Relative speed of type C fibers

A

Slow

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67
Q

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential (GABA)

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68
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitters

A

Increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential (Glutamate)

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69
Q

What happens when acetyl choline is blocked?

A

Paralysis occurs

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70
Q

Types of spinal nerves

A

Cervical nerves, thoracic nerves, lumbar nerves, sacral nerves, and coccygeal nerves

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71
Q

Conus Medullaris

A

The tip of the spinal cord

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72
Q

Cauda Equina

A

Collection of spinal nerve roots coming off of the conus medullaris

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73
Q

What are the functional organs of grey matter?

A

Sensory nuclei and motor nuclei

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74
Q

Horns of grey matter

A

Posterior, lateral, and anterior

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75
Q

Layers of the spinal meninges

A

Dura, arachnoid, subarachnoid, and pia mater

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76
Q

Which layer of the meninges touches the brain?

A

Pia mater

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77
Q

What is subarachnoid space?

A

Filled with cerebral spinal fluid and blood vessels; extends down to filum terminale

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78
Q

Somatic motor neurons

A

Skeletal muscles

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79
Q

Autonomic motor neurons

A

Smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands, and adipose tissue

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80
Q

Somatic sensory neurons

A

Monitor the outside world and our position within it

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81
Q

Visceral sensory neurons

A

Monitor internal conditions (organs)

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82
Q

Describe pain fibers

A

Small, slow, and unmyelinated

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83
Q

Reflex arc

A

Sensory neurons sends information in

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84
Q

Describe the stretch reflex

A

Monosynaptic, fastest motor responses, automatic regulations of muscle length

85
Q

Polysynaptic neurons

A

Correct neuron is fired while alternate is shut down

86
Q

Antagonist muscle

A

Muscle working against muscle of interest

87
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals

88
Q

Withdrawal reflex

A

Releasing acetyl choline to contract muscle, polysynaptic, multiple muscle groups (Flexor reflex)

89
Q

Crossed extensor reflex

A

Polysynaptic, multiple muscle groups, and contralateral reflex arc (affects other side of the body)

90
Q

Regions of the brain

A

Cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem

91
Q

Functions of the cerebrum

A

Conscious thought processes, intellectual functions, memory storage/processing
Conscious and subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle contractions

92
Q

Functions of the thalamus

A

Relays and processes sensory information

93
Q

Function of the hypothalamus

A

Controls emotions, regulates body temp, coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions, behavioral drives, and hormone production

94
Q

Function of the pons

A

Relays sensory information to the cerebellum and thalamus
Subconscious somatic and visceral motor sensors

95
Q

Function of the medulla oblongata

A

Relays sensory information to the thalamus to other portions of the brain stem
Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function

96
Q

Longitudal cerebral fissue

A

Separates cerebral hemispheres

97
Q

What is gyri?

A

Squiggly worm like structure to increase surface areas

98
Q

Somatosensory information

A

Sensory information from the body

99
Q

What does the primary motor cortex control?

A

Voluntary control of the skeletal muscles (Frontal lobe)

100
Q

What does the primary somatosensory cortex control?

A

Conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain, vibration, taste, and temperature (Parietal lobe)

101
Q

What does the visual cortex control?

A

Conscious perception of visual stimuli (Occipital lobe)

102
Q

What do the auditory cortex and olfactory cortex control?

A

Conscious perception of auditory and olfactory stimuli (Temporal lobe)

103
Q

What do all lobes work together to do?

A

Integration and processing of sensory data; processing and initiation of motor activities

104
Q

Fibers of the white matter of the cerebrum

A

Association fibers, arcuate fibers, and longitudinal fasciculi

105
Q

Function of the association fibers

A

Interconnect cortical areas within the same hemisphere

106
Q

Functions of the arcuate fibers

A

Interconnect gyri within a lobe

107
Q

Functions of the longitudinal fasciculi

A

Interconnect the frontal lobe with other cerebral lobes

108
Q

Function of the commissures

A

Interconnect and permit communication between the cerebral hemispheres

109
Q

Types of commissures

A

Corpus callosum and anterior commisure

110
Q

Function of projection fibers

A

Connect cerebral cortex to diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord

111
Q

Association areas

A

Interpret information from primary cortices

112
Q

Relaying center of the brain

A

Thalamus

113
Q

Gustatory cortex

A

Processes taste

114
Q

Function of the prefrontal cortex

A

Coordinates information relayed from all cortical association areas and performs abstract intellectual functions

115
Q

Lobotomy

A

what i need

116
Q

Hemispheric lateralization

A

Functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres

117
Q

Optic chiasm

A

Stuff erased by vision

118
Q

Wernickes area

A

Language comprehension and left cerebral hemisphere. Association area towards the back of the game

119
Q

Broca’s area

A

Controls speech production, primarily associated with left cerebral hemisphere, regulates patterns of breathing and vocalization. Towards the front of the brain

120
Q

What are the ventricular systems of the brain?

A

Lateral ventricles, interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle

121
Q

Function of the cerebrospinal fluid

A

Support brain, cushion delicate neural structures, transport nutrients, chemical messengers, and wastes

122
Q

How does CSF help in terms of head trauma?

A

Cushions brains against sudden jolts

123
Q

How do dura folds protect the brain?

A

It holds the brain in position and protect it from damage resulting from contact with the cranium

124
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

Proteins that act as a staple. Present in all epithelial cells.

125
Q

How is the blood CSF barrier formed?

A

Ependymal cells connected by tight junctions

126
Q

What is the function of the blood CSF barrier?

A

Limits transfer of substances to CSF

127
Q

What is the function of the blood brain barrier?

A

Isolates CNS from general circulation

128
Q

What is the BBB composed of?

A

Network of tight junctions

129
Q

How to astrocytes regulate BBB?

A

Releasing chemicals that control the permeability of endothelium

130
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

The emotional system. Emotions are composed of both thought and physical response

131
Q

Function of the limbic system?

A

Establishes emotional states, facilitates memory storage and retrieval.

132
Q

What emotion is associated with the amygdaloid body?

A

Fear

133
Q

Basal nuceli

A

Subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone, coordination of learned movement patterns.

134
Q

Basal ganglia

A

“Trims the fat on your movements”

135
Q

What causes the symptoms of parkinson’s disease?

A

Increased activity of basal nuclei

136
Q

What is the function of the caudate nucleus?

A

Subconscious adjustment and modification of voluntary motor commands

137
Q

What is the function of lentiform nucleus?

A

Subconscious adjustment and modification of voluntary motor commands.

138
Q

What are the components of the Lentiform nucleus?

A

Putamen and globus pallidus

139
Q

What is cranial nerve I and what is its function?

A

Olfactory: controls sense of smell from nose (S)

140
Q

What is cranial nerve II and what is its function?

A

Optic Nerve: Controls vision (S)

141
Q

What is cranial nerve III and what is its function?

A

Oculomotor nerve: supplies the muscles of the eyes (M)

142
Q

What is cranial nerve IV and what is its function?

A

Trochlear nerve: serves the superior oblique eye muscle (M)

143
Q

What is cranial nerve V and what is its function?

A

Trigeminal nerve: Sensory from face and mouth, motor to muscles of chewing (B)

144
Q

What is cranial nerve VI and what is its function?

A

Abducens nerve: Serves the lateral rectus muscle (M)

145
Q

What is cranial nerve VII and what is its function?

A

Facial nerve: serves the muscles responsible for facial expressions as well as the lacrimal and salivary glands (B)

146
Q

What is cranial nerve VIII and what is its function?

A

Vestibulochochlear nerve: responsible for maintaining ear equilibrium and hearing (S)

147
Q

What is cranial nerve IX and what is its function?

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve: helps the pharynx in swallowing (B)

148
Q

What is cranial nerve X and what is its function?

A

Vagus nerve: Allows sensations from visceral organs and aids in parasympathetic motor regulation of visceral organs. (B)

149
Q

What is cranial nerve XI and what is its function?

A

Accessory nerve: muscles that move the neck, head, and shoulders (M)

150
Q

What is cranial nerve XII and what is its function?

A

Hypoglossal nerve: Serves muscles of the tongue (M)

151
Q

What is sensation?

A

Arriving information

152
Q

What is perception?

A

Conscious awareness of a sensation

153
Q

Receptor specificity?

A

Each receptor has a characteristic sensitivity

154
Q

Receptor field?

A

Area monitored by a single receptor cell

155
Q

Transduction?

A

Conversion of an arriving stimulus into an action potential by sensory receptor

156
Q

What is a dermatone?

A

Area covered by the anterior root

157
Q

Somatic sensory pathway

A

Carries sensory information from skin and muscles of the body wall to CNS

158
Q

What are the major somatic sensory pathways?

A

Spinothalamic pathway, posteior column pathway, spinocerebellar pathway

159
Q

Visceral sensory pathways

A

Interoreceptors in visceral tissues and organs

160
Q

Nociceptors

A

Pain

161
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Temperature

162
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Physical distortion

163
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Chemical concentration

164
Q

Fibers of nociceptors

A

Myelinated type A fibers (sharp pain) and unmyelinated type C fibers (slow pain)

165
Q

Pathway of mechanoreceptors

A

Physical stimuli -> distort plasma membrane -> mechanically gated ion channel

166
Q

Classes of mechanorecptors

A

Tactile receptors, baroreceptors, and propioceptors (joints and skeletal muscles)

167
Q

Root hair plexus

A

A root hair plexus is made up of free nerve endings stimulated by hair movements

168
Q

Free nerve endings

A

Branching tips of sensory neurons that respond to touch, pain, pressure, and temperature.

169
Q

Tactile discs

A

Fine touch and pressure receptors sensitive to shape and texture

170
Q

Baroreceptors of carotid sinus and aortic sinus

A

Changes in BP

171
Q

Baroreceptors of lung

A

Tells you pressure of lungs to determine breathing rate

172
Q

Baroreceptors of digestive tract

A

When you’re full or need to poop

173
Q

Baroreceptors of bladder wall

A

When you have to pee

174
Q

Proprioception

A

A somatic sensation (know your arm is bent while your eyes are closed)

175
Q

Where are proprioreceptors found?

A

Joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles

176
Q

What are the major groups of proprioreceptors?

A

Muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, and receptors in joint capsules.

177
Q

Function of muscle spindles?

A

Monitor skeletal muscle length and trigger stretch reflex

178
Q

Function of golgi tendon organs?

A

Monitor tension during muscle contraction

179
Q

Function of receptors in joint capsules?

A

Nerve endings that detect pressure, tension, and movement at the joint.

180
Q

Function of chemoreceptors

A

Monitor pH, CO2, and O2 levels

181
Q

First order neurons

A

Sensory neuron that delivers sensations to CNS

182
Q

Second-order neurons

A

Interneuron in spinal cord or brainstem that receives information from FON

183
Q

Decussation

A

Crosses to opposite side of CNS

184
Q

Third-order neurons

A

Neurons in thalamus that must receive information from SON. Needs to pass third-order neurons to reach awareness.

185
Q

How many neurons does the spinothalamic pathway use?

A

3

186
Q

Where is the synapse in the spinothalamic pathway?

A

Posterior horns

187
Q

What does the anterior spinothalamic tract sense?

A

Crude touch and pressure sensations

188
Q

What does the poterior column pathway do?

A

Carries sensation of fine touch, vibration, pressure, and proprioception

189
Q

What does the lateral spinothalamic tract sense?

A

Pain and temperature

190
Q

Where is the posterior column pathway processed?

A

Thalamus

191
Q

Different types of humunculus

A

Sensory and motor

192
Q

Function of the posterior column pathway

A

Determines how a sensation is perceieved

193
Q

What is the sensory humunculus?

A

Functional map of the primary somatosensory cortex

194
Q

Spinocerebellar pathway

A

Position of skeletal muscles, tendons, and joints and goes to the cerebellum

195
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Controls contractions of the skeletal muscles

196
Q

Somatic motor pathways

A

Always involve at least two motor neurons

197
Q

Upper motor neuron path

A

Brain to the spinal cord, cell body lies in a CNS processing center, synapses on lower motor neuron (in the spinal cord), facilitates or inhibits the lower motor neuron

198
Q

Lower motor neuron

A

Spinal cord to the muscles, cell body in brainstem or spinal cord (only the axon extends outside the CNS), Innervates a single motor unit in skeletal muscle, triggers a contraction in innervated muscle, damage eliminates voluntary and reflex control over innervated motor unit (face droops)

199
Q

How do conscious and subconscious motor commands control skeletal muscles?

A

Travels over corticospinal pathways, medial pathways, and lateral pathways

200
Q

Function of the corticospinal pathways?

A

Provides voluntary controls over skeletal muscles

201
Q

Corticospinal tracts

A

Axons synapse on lower motor neurons in anterior horns of spinal cord

202
Q

Function of the medial pathway?

A

Helps control gross movements of trunk and proximal limb muscles (walking) Maintain posture and balance

203
Q

Function of the lateral pathway?

A

Helps control distal movements (writing)

204
Q

Where does the medial pathway recieve information from?

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve

205
Q

Components of medial pathway

A

Superior colliculi and inferior colliculi

206
Q

Superior colliculi

A

Visual sensation

207
Q

Inferior colliculi

A

Auditory sensation

208
Q

What does the the medial pathway form?

A

Reticular formation (staying awake)

209
Q

What is the basal pathway and cerebellum responsible for?

A

Coordination and feedback control over muscle contractions

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