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Bio 251 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?

A

Anatomy is about the structures of the body while physiology is the study of the functions of the body

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2
Q

Cytology vs. histology

A

The study of cells vs the study of tissues

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3
Q

Pathology

A

The study of sick cells

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4
Q

Pathophysiology

A

The study of sick systems

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5
Q

Proximal

A

Towards the point of attachment of a limb to a trunk

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6
Q

Distal

A

Away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

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7
Q

Medial

A

Towards the midline

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8
Q

Lateral

A

Away from the midline

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9
Q

Cranial

A

Towards the head

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10
Q

Posterior/dorsal

A

The back

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11
Q

Anterior/ventral

A

The front surface

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12
Q

Level of organization of human body

A

Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems

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13
Q

How many organ systems do humans have?

A

Eleven

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14
Q

Major organs of integumentary System

A

Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails

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15
Q

Functions of the integumentary System

A

1) protects against environmental temperatures 2) helps regulate body temperature 3) provides sensory information

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16
Q

Organs of the skeletal system

A

Bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, bone marrow

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17
Q

Functions of the skeletal system

A

1) provides support and protection for other tissues 2) stores calcium and other minerals 3) forms blood cells

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18
Q

Organs of the muscular system

A

Skeletal muscles and associated tendons

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19
Q

Functions of the muscular system

A

1) provides movement 2) provides protection and support for other tissues 3) generates heat that maintains body temperature

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20
Q

Major organs of the nervous system

A

Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs

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21
Q

Functions of the nervous system

A

1) directs immediate responses to stimuli 2) coordinates or moderates other organ systems 3) provides and interprets sensory information

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22
Q

Major organs of the endocrine System

A

Pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, panereas and gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems

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23
Q

Functions of the endocrine system

A

1) directs long-term changes in other organ systems 2) adjusts metabolic activity and E use 3) controls many structural and functional changes during development

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24
Q

Major organs of the cardiovascular system

A

Heart, blood, blood vessels

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25
Q

Functions of the cardiovascular system

A

1) distributes blood cells, water, nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide 2) distributes heat to control body temperature

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26
Q

Anatomical position

A

Hands at side, Palms forward

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27
Q

Supine

A

Lying down face up

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28
Q

Prone

A

Lying down, face down

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29
Q

Functions of body cavities

A

1) protects organs from shocks and impacts 2) permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs

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30
Q

Viscera

A

Internal organs

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31
Q

Serous membrane

A

Lines body cavities and covers organs

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32
Q

Parietal serosa

A

Lines cavity

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33
Q

Visceral serosa

A

Covers organs

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34
Q

Pleural cavities

A

Right and left lungs

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35
Q

Homeostasis

A

Body’s way of regulating functions of body

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36
Q

Autoregulation

A

Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to an environmental change

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37
Q

Extrinsic regulation

A

Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine System

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38
Q

Homeostatic regulatory mechanism component

A

Receptor, control center, and effector

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39
Q

Homeostatic regulatory mechanism

A

Limits fluctuations of internal conditions to keep them close to a set point, or desired value

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40
Q

Receptor

A

Receives the stimulus

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41
Q

Control Center

A

Processes the signal and sends instructions

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42
Q

Effector

A

Carries out instructions

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43
Q

Negative feedback

A

The response of the effector negates the stimulus. Body is brought back to homeostasis

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44
Q

Positive feedback

A

Initial stimulus provides a response that amplifies the original change in conditions. body is moved away from homeostasis

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45
Q

Positive feedback loop

A

Completes a dangerous process quickly to reestablish homeostasis

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46
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A

Continual adaptation

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47
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Weak and keep the DNA strands together

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48
Q

Macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

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49
Q

Glucose

A

Most important carbohydrate • stored version of glucose is glycogen

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50
Q

Lipids

A

Hydrophobic molecules

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51
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

No double-bonds in hydrocarbon tails

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52
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids

A

One or more double bonds in tail

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53
Q

Glycosides

A

Fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule

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54
Q

Functions of glycerides

A

1) energy source 2) insulation 3) protection

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55
Q

Structure of phospholipids and glycolipids

A

Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

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56
Q

Structural lipids

A

Components of plasma membranes

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57
Q

Number of amino acids to form polymers

A

20

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58
Q

Primary structure

A

The sequence of amino acids along a polypeptide

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59
Q

Secondary structure

A

Hydrogen bonds form spirals or pleat

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60
Q

Tertiary structure

A

Coiling and folding produce 3d shape

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61
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Final protein complex produced by interacting polypeptide chains

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62
Q

Globular proteins

A

Soluble spheres w/ active functions. shape is based on tertiary structure

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63
Q

Fibrous proteins

A

Structural sheets or strands. Shape is based on secondary or quaternary structures

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64
Q

7 major protein functions

A

Support,movement, transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, defense

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65
Q

Enzymes

A

Lower the activation E of a chemical reaction • lock and key model

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66
Q

DNA

A

1) determines inherited characteristics 2) directs protein synthesis 3) controls enzyme production 4) controls metabolism

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67
Q

RNA

A

Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis

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68
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Process of adding a phosphate group to another molecule, produces a high E bond

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69
Q

What is the plasma membrane composed of?

A

Lipids/cholesterol, proteins, carbs

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70
Q

What is the cytoplasm composed of?

A

Cytosol, organelles

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71
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

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72
Q

Tonicity

A

Capability of a solution to modify the volume of cells by altering the water content

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73
Q

Receptor mediated endocytosis

A

Specific uptake of macromolecules

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74
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane

A

1) physical barrier 2) regulation of exchange W environment 3) sensitivity to the environment 4) structural support

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75
Q

Anchoring proteins

A

Attach to inside or outside structures

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76
Q

Recognition proteins

A

Label cells as normal or abnormal [ cancerous ]

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77
Q

Enzymes

A

Catalyze reactions

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78
Q

Receptor proteins

A

Binds and responds to ligands

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79
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Transport specific solutes through membrane

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80
Q

Channels

A

Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane

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81
Q

Cytosol

A

Intracellularfluid

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82
Q

Contents of cytosol

A

Dissolved materials, high potassium low sodium, high protein, high carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat.

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83
Q

Free ribosomes

A

Manufacture proteins for cell

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84
Q

Fixed ribosomes

A

Manufacture proteins for secretion

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85
Q

Smooth Er

A

Synthesize lipids and carbs

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86
Q

Rough Er

A

Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis

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87
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Modifies and packages secretions

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88
Q

Lysosomal functions

A

1) break down large molecules 2) attack bacteria 3) recycle damaged organelles 4) eject waste by exocytosis

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89
Q

PeroxiSome’s

A

Enzyme containing vesicles

90
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Engulf large objects in phagosomes

91
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Endosomes”drink”extracellular fluid

92
Q

Exocytosis

A

Granules or droplets are released from the cells

93
Q

Chromatin

A

Loosely coiled DNA [ cells not dividing ]

94
Q

Chromosomes

A

Tightly coiled DNA [ cells dividing ]

95
Q

Triplet code

A

3 bases =1 amino acid

96
Q

Transcription

A

Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA

97
Q

RNA polymerase

A

Produces mRNA

98
Q

Translation

A

RNA to protein

99
Q

Steps of gene transcription

A

1) gene activation 2) DNA to mRNA 3) RNA processing

100
Q

Gametes

A

Undergo meiosis

101
Q

Somatic cells

A

Mitosis

102
Q

Mitotic rate

A

Rate of cell division, slow mitotic rate means longer cell life, cell division requires ATP

103
Q

Which cells rarely divide?

A

Muscle, neurons

104
Q

Telomeres

A

As cell divides,telomeres shorten → linked to aging

105
Q

Benign

A

Contained

106
Q

Malignant

A

Spreads into surrounding tissue

107
Q

Primary tumor

A

Tumor at origin

108
Q

Secondary tumor

A

Tumor found outside of origin

109
Q

Four types of tissue

A

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

110
Q

Functions of epithelial tissues

A

1) covers exposed surfaces 2) lines internal passageways and chambers 3) produces glandular secretions

111
Q

Functions of the connective tissues

A

1) fills internal spaces 2) provides structure support 3) stores E

112
Q

Functions of the muscle tissue

A

Contracts to produce movement

113
Q

Functions of nervous tissue

A

1) propagates E impulses 2) carries information

114
Q

Characteristics of epithelia

A

1) attached to basement membrane 2) polarity 3) cellularity 4)avascularity 5) regeneration

115
Q

Specializations of epithelial cells

A

1) Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) 2) move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) 3) produce secretions (protection and messaging)

116
Q

Integrity of epithelia

A

1) intercellular connections 2) attachment to the basement membrane 3) epithelial maintenance and repair

117
Q

Classifications of epithelia (shape)

A

Squamous,cuboidal, columnar

118
Q

Classification of epithelia (layers)

A

Simple or stratified

119
Q

Transitional epithelia

A

Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching without damage, found in urinary bladder

120
Q

Components of connective tissue

A

1) specialized cells 2) extracellular protein fibers 3) fluid called “ground substance”

121
Q

Matrix

A

Extracellular components of connective tissue, majority of tissue volume, determines specialized function

122
Q

Fasciae

A

Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support and surround organs (cellophane wrap)

123
Q

More functions of connective tissue

A

Establishing a structural framework for the body, transporting fluids and dissolved materials, protecting delicate organs, supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue, storing E reserves, and defending the body from invading microorganisms

124
Q

Categories of connective tissue

A

1) connective tissue proper (connect and protect) 2) fluid connective tissue (transport) 3) supporting connective tissue (structural strength)

125
Q

Collagen fibers

A

Most common fibers in connective tissue proper

126
Q

Characteristics of collagen fibers

A

Long, straight, unbranched, strong, flexible • resist force in one direction

127
Q

Where are collagen fibers found?

A

Tendons and ligaments

128
Q

Reticular fibers

A

Form a network of interwoven fibers (stroma)

129
Q

Characteristics of reticular fibers

A

Strong and flexible, resist forces in many directions, stabilize functional cells

130
Q

Example of reticular fiber function

A

Form sheaths around organs

131
Q

Elastic fibers

A

Contain elastin, branched and wavy, return to original length after stretching

132
Q

Example of elastic fibers

A

Elastic ligaments of vertebrae

133
Q

Fluid connective tissue

A

Blood and lymph

134
Q

Lymph

A

Forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels• monitored by immune system

135
Q

Supporting connective tissue

A

Cartilage and bone

136
Q

Functions of cartilage

A

Shock absorption and protection through firm get called matrix

137
Q

Structure of cartilage

A

Avascular

138
Q

Types of cartilage

A

1) hyaline 2) elastic 3) fibrocartilage

139
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A

Most common type of cartilage • tough and somewhat flexible • reduces friction between bones • found in synovial joints, rib tips sternum, and trachea

140
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Supportive but bends easily, found in ear and epiglottis•

141
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Durable and tough, limits movement, prevents bone-to- bone contact • found around joints, between pubic bones, and between spinal vertebrae

142
Q

Properties of bone

A

Weight support, calcified, resists shattering due to flexible collagen fibers, osteocytes (bone cells) lie in lacunae, periosteum covers bone

143
Q

Periosteum

A

Fibrous outer layer and cellular inner layer

144
Q

Tissue membrane

A

Physical barrier that lines/covers body surfaces • epithelium supported by connective tissue

145
Q

Mucous membranes

A

Line passageways that have external connections

146
Q

Serous membranes

A

Line cavities that do not open to the outside

147
Q

Serous fluid

A

Reduces friction

148
Q

Types of serous membranes

A

1) peritoneum → lines peritoneal cavity and covers abdominal organs 2) pleura → lines pleural cavities and covers lungs 3) pericardium → lines pericardial cavity and covers heart

149
Q

Types of muscle tissue

A

1) skeletal muscle 2) cardiac muscle 3) smooth muscle

150
Q

Skeletal muscle characteristics

A

Long, cylindrical, and striated

151
Q

Cardiac muscle tissue characteristics

A

Short, branched, striated w/ a single nucleus, involuntary do not run parallel to each other

152
Q

Intercalated discs

A

Glue that hold muscle cells together while they contract

153
Q

Function of nervous tissue

A

1) specialized for conducting electrical impulses 2)concentrated in the brain and spinal cord

154
Q

Types of cells in nervous tissue

A

Neurons and neuroglia

155
Q

Glial cell functions

A

Support, insulation, protection for neurons and tether them to blood vessels

156
Q

Tissue response to injury

A

Inflammation and regeneration

157
Q

Consequences of inflammation

A

Increased blood flow, increased vessel permeability, and pain

158
Q

Inflammation cont.

A

Increased local temperature,increased oxgyen and nutrients, increased phagocytosis, and removal of toxins and waste

159
Q

Catabolism

A

Breaking down fats and carbs

160
Q

Anabolism

A

Synthesizing fats, making new cells

161
Q

Where is glycogen stored?

A

Skeletal muscle and liver

162
Q

Triglycerides

A

Most abundant storage lipid, consists primarily of fatty acids

163
Q

Glycolysis

A

Occurs in cytosol•does not require oxygen • produces 2 ATP molecules

164
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules

165
Q

Integumentory System

A

Skin and accessory structures

166
Q

Components of cutaneous membrane

A

Outer epidermis, inner dermis

167
Q

Accessory structures

A

Hair and hair follicles, exocrine glands, nails

168
Q

Subcutaneous layer

A

Hypodermis

169
Q

Significance of dermal ridges

A

Layer from which fingerprint is derived

170
Q

What are the body most abundant epithelial cells?

A

Keratinocytes

171
Q

Two types of skin

A

Thin skin, thick skin

172
Q

Thin skin

A

Covers most of the body, has four layers of keratinocytes

173
Q

Thick skin

A

Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet • has five layers of keratinocytes

174
Q

Melanocytes

A

Contain the pigment melanin, protect from uv radiations and darken skin

175
Q

Dermal strength and elasticity

A

Collagen fibers → very strong and resists stretching, easily bent or twisted, limit flexibility to prevent tissue damage -
Elastic fibers → permit stretching and then recoil to original length, provide flexibility
Fibers and water → provide flexibility and resilience (skin turgor)

176
Q

Tension lines

A

Produced by parallel bundles of collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis

177
Q

Subcutaneous layer

A

Lies deep to dermis, stabilizes position of the skin, primarily adipose tissue

178
Q

What 2 pigments influence skin color?

A

Melanin and carotene

179
Q

Melanin

A

Produced by melanocytes
Stored in intracellular vesicles
Protects skin from uv radiation

180
Q

Carotene

A

Can be converted to vitamin A which is req for the maintenance of epithelia, synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in eye

181
Q

Hair

A

Accessory structures of the integument

182
Q

Functions of the hair

A
  1. Protect and insulate
  2. Guard openings from particles and insects
  3. serve as sensory receptors
183
Q

Types of sweat glands

A
  1. apocrine sweat glands
  2. Eccrine sweat glands
184
Q

Other integumentary glands

A

Mammary glands
Ceruminous glands

185
Q

Nails

A

Protect tips of fingers and toes

186
Q

Functions of the skeletal system

A

1.support
2. Storage of minerals and lipids
3. blood cell production
4. Protection
5. Leverage

187
Q

How are bones classified?

A

Shape+ structure

188
Q

Structure of a long bone

A

Diaphysis(shaft)
Epiphysis (wide part at each end)
Metaphysis

189
Q

Diaphysis

A

1, wall of compact bone
2.central space called medullary cavity

190
Q

Epiphysis

A

Mostly spongy bone (trabecular bone)

191
Q

Characteristics of bone

A
  1. dense matrix
  2. Osteocytes
  3. Canaliculi
  4. Periosteum
192
Q

Osteocytes

A

Bone cells within lacunae organized around blood cells

193
Q

Canaliculi

A

Narrow passageways that allow for exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gases

194
Q

Periosteum

A

Covers outer surfaces of bones

195
Q

Bone matrix composition

A

2/3 calcium phosphate → forms crystals of hydroxyapatite
1/3 collagen fibers

196
Q

Four types of bone cells

A
  1. osteogenic cells
  2. osteoblasts
  3. osteocytes
  4. osteoclasts
197
Q

Osteogenic cells

A

Stem cells whose division produces osteoblasts
And assist in fracture repair

198
Q

Osteoblasts

A

• Produce new bone matrix during osteogenesis
• When osteoblasts are surrounded by bone matrix they become osteocytes
• Use calcium phosphate to constantly lay down new bone.

199
Q

Osteocytes

A

• Live in lacunae between layers of matrix
• Have cytoplasmic ext through canaliculi

200
Q

Functions of osteocytes

A

1.maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
2. Help repair damage bone

201
Q

Functions of osteoclasts

A
  1. Absorb and remove bone matrix
  2. Secrete acids and protein digesting enzymes
    a. Dissolve bone matrix and release stored minerals
    b. This osteolysis is important in homeostasis
202
Q

Osteon

A

Functional Unit of compact bone

203
Q

Central canal

A

Component of compact bone that contains blood vessels

204
Q

Perforating canal

A

Perpendicular to surface bone
Carry blood vessels into deep bone and marrow

205
Q

Types of lamellae

A

Concentric, interstitial, circumferential

206
Q

Concentric lamellae

A

Surround central canal

207
Q

Interstitial lamellae

A

Fills space between osteons

208
Q

Circumferential lamellae

A

Outer and inner bone surfaces

209
Q

Characteristics of spongy bone

A

Towards the center of the long bone

210
Q

Red bone marrow

A

Fills spaces between trabeculae

211
Q

Yellow bone marrow

A

Stores fat and regulates calcium levels

212
Q

Endosteum

A

Cellular layer that lines medullary cavity active during bone growth, repair, remodeling

213
Q

Bone development

A

Ossification and calcification

214
Q

Endochrondral ossification

A

How most bones form

215
Q

Intramembraneous ossification

A

Produces dermal bones such as mandible and clavicle

216
Q

Interstitial growth

A

Bone grows in length

217
Q

Appositional growth

A

Bone grows in width

218
Q

Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin

A

Affect storage, absorption, and excretion of calcium ions in the bones, digestive tract, and kidneys

219
Q

PTH

A

Stimulate osteoclast activity increase intestinal absorption, decrease calcium excretion by kidneys

220
Q

Fractures

A

Cracks or breaks in bones due to physical stress

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