Exam 2 Flashcards
Density
(ρ = m/v) -> kg/m^3 , g/mL , g/cm^3
Reference liquid
Density of water at 4°C and 1 atm is 1000 kg/m3, or 1 g/cm3
Specific gravity
dimensionless constant = ρ/ρwater
If substance has specific gravity > 1
sink
If substance has specific gravity < 1
float
% of the object that will be submerged =
specific gravity x 100
buoyant force
When objects float in a liquid, that fluid exerts an upward force on the object
Floating object => magnitude of buoyant force
Fb = ρliquidVliquidg > weight of object
Archimedes principle
buoyant force is directly proportional to the volume of the liquid
KNOW THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP STRUCTURE
go do Quizlet Right now
pH equation
pH = −log [H+]
H+ concentration of 10−4 M will have a pH of 4
pOH equation
pOH = −log [OH-]
○ OH− concentration of 10−9 M will have a pOH of 9
Shortcut calculation for pH
p(N × 10?M) = (M?1).(10−N) = H+ concentration of 4 × 10−8 will have a pH = (8−1).(10−4) = 7.6
pKw
pH + pOH = pKw = 14
autoionization constant of water (Kw = [H3O+][OH−] = 1 × 10−14 at 25°C)
Viscosity
resistance to flow = resistance to deformation by shear stress
For MCAT viscosity is negligible and fluid are incompressible (fixed volume)
Laminar flow
flowing fluid is composed of parallel layers that may be moving at different velocities = smooth well-behaved flow that is easy to model
Turbulent flow
the smooth regulated layer of laminar flow breakdown
Poiseuille’s Law
describes laminar flow of incompressible fluids through a long cylindrical tube
Poiseuille’s law equation
Q = ΔPπr^4 / 8Lη ; ΔP = 8LηQ/πr^4
○ the flow rate (Q)
§ Flow rate (Q) is directly proportional to r^4
○ the pressure drop between both ends of the tube (ΔP)
○ the radius of the tube (r)
○ the length of the tube (L)
○ and the viscosity (η)
Bernoulli’s Equation
conservation of energy for fluids
- P1 + ½ ρv1^2 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρv2^2 + ρgh2
- v = velocity; ½ ρv2 = KE of the fluid
- h = height; ρgh = PE of the fluid
§ When height is constant => horizontal pipe system => increase in velocity corresponds to a decrease in pressure. Vice verse
- P = pressure
Continuity Equation
(v1A1 = v2A2)
- Within a closed system, the flow rate of a liquid is constant -> velocity of the fluid (v) is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area that it is flowing through
Work
energy transfer (J)
- 1J = 1N*m or 1 kg*m^2/s^2 - Work done when a force is applied to an object for a certain distance: W = |F|*d*cos(θ) -> vector - Work = area under curve of F (y-axis) and d (x-axis) - Work = pressure * change in volume = PΔV
Net work performed on or by an object
change of its kinetic energy: Wnet = KE final - KE initial
Wavelength from longest to shortest
radio -> microwaves -> IR -> Visible -> UV -> X-rays -> Gamma rays
Longer wavelengths correspond to
lower-frequency radiation
Shorter wavelengths correspond to
higher-frequency radiation
Electromagnetic waves
transverse waves that can propagate through vacuum + air + water
- Have both electrical and magnetic components with amplitudes perpendicular to one another - Goes at speed of light c = 3 × 108 m/s - Oscillates in periodic fashion with peaks and valleys - Characteristic amplitude, wavelength, and frequency (Hz) define the direction, energy and intensity of the radiation
Visible light
(400 -700nm) ROYGIBIV
Relate frequency and wavelength to wave velocity
v = λf
Energy of EM wave
E = hf = hc/λ
- h = Planck’s constant
- Wavelength of light is inversely proportional to frequeny
Increase in frequency produces and proportional decrease in wavelength with increase in energy of photons that compose the light
When entering a new medium, ___ and _____ of light changes, while ___ remains unaltered
velocity; wavelength; frequency
Surface Tension
arise due to the cohesive forces between liquid molecules
- The molecules at the surface of water do not have other water molecules on all sides of them -> cohere more strongly to those directly associated with them - The stronger cohesion between water molecules than air makes it more difficult to move an object through the surface that to move it when it is completely submersed in the liquid -> resists external force - Small objects will float on the surface of liquid due to surface tension as long as it does not break through the top later of water molecules
Surfactant
Surfactant lowers the surface tension of the lungs - allowing them to more easily expand upon inspiration
Soap and surface tension
Soap cleans clothes by lowering the surface tension of water, allowing the soap molecules to soak more easily into pores and stains
Surface tension formula
Ts = F/d -> units = N/m or dyne/cm
- And hot water’s surface tension is lower - better wetting agent
Hay test
powdered sulfur is sprinkled on the surface of urine sample.
- Float = normal urine - Sink = surface tension is lowered by the bile present in some liver diseases
temperature and the volume of liquid
Higher temperatures = larger liquid volume
Electrical forces generated by the voltage source and by ______ will be unaffected by increased temperature
intrinsic electrical properties
surface tension and temperature
Surface tension decreases as temperature rises -> average KE of the fluid molecules increases -> more likely to break the intermolecular bonds holding the molecules together at the surface
surface tension and surface area of fluid
Surface tension decreases as surface area of the fluid rises due to the molecules being stretched further apart resulting in a thinner film of surface tension
Sound wave velocity
- Sound wave velocity = 1/ density of medium
- v = √(Κ/ρ)
K = coefficient of stiffness = bulk modulus (modulus of bulk elasticity for gases)
ρ = density
K = coefficient of stiffness = bulk modulus (modulus of bulk elasticity for gases)
□ Speed of sound increases with the stiffness (the resistance of an elastic body to deformation by an applied force)
Sound waves travel slowest in gases and fastest in solids
ρ = density of medium to velocity of sound wave
□ As density increases (from warm air to cold air) would cause velocity to decrease
□ Density has a smaller effect than stiffness - the extent to which a typical solid is more stiff than a gas exceeds the ratio of their density
Pitch
- Pitch of a perceived sound is dependent on frequency
Timbre
overall quality of voice that results from overlapping waves
Sounds
longitudinal compressive waves
- Produced from vocal tracts or by the displacement of air caused by various movements of and interactions between various objects in the environment
We sense sound in terms of
pressure
Sound speed increases with ___
temperature
Intensity of sound
power delivered by sound over a given area (Watts/m^2)
- Intensity is proportional to the amplitude^2
Loudness
how intensity of sound is perceived -> closely related to amplitude
decibels (dB)
units by which intensity is measured on a logarithmic scale, expressing the intensity of sound as its ration to that of the smallest detectable sound intensity I0
The intensity ration of sound in decibels equation
dB = 10log(I/I0), where I0 = 1 x 10^-12 W/m^2
Range of human hearing
20 Hz to 20kHz
Nucleophiles are often recognized by the presence of …
at least one free pair of valence electrons
Factors that make a strong nucleophile include:
- Greater electron density - more lone pairs - decrease in electronegativity
- More charge - negative charges makes for stronger nucleophile (e.g. conjugate bases)
- Lack of steric hindrance - bulky nucleophiles (e.g. more large acyl groups hinder, slow nucleophiles
Solvent - in polar protic solvent, nucleophilic ability increases as we go down a group
Carbonyl reactivity is determined by the….
strength of the leaving group attached to the carbonyl
Good leaving groups are usually __ __
weak bases
Most to least reactive carboxylic derivatives
acyl halides (R(C=O)X) > anhydrides (R(C=O)O(C=O)R') > esters (R(C=O)OR') and acids > amides (-NH2, -NHR, or NR1R2) - Not thermodynamically favorable for a molecule to transform from a less reactive (more stable) form to a more reactive (less stable) form through nucleophilic substitution § Carboxylic acid derivatives can be interconverted among each other Carboxylic derivatives = the -OH is replaced with something else
Amides
carboxylic acid derivatives with an amine (-NH2, -NHR, or NR1R2) attached to the carbonyl carbon instead of -OH group
Acid Anhydrides
formed by condensation of 2 carboxylic acids (R(C=O)O(C=O)R’)
To go from a less to more reactive carboxylic acid derivative
convert a carboxylic acid derivative back to a carboxylic acid and then generating a new carboxylic acid derivative
Carbonyl (C=O) carbons
have significant partial positive charge and often act as electrophiles
nitrogen-containing compounds with medium melting/boiling points that can act as ___ ___; such as
weak bases
- Imines = (R =NH or R =NR') - Enamines = (C=C-NH2, C=C-NHR, or C=C-NRR') - Amines (R-NH2, R-NHR, or R-NR1R2)
S
counterclockwise clockwise
R
clockwise
Number of stereoisomers
2^n
- n = number of chiral centers
Meso-compounds
molecules with multiple stereocenters that have an internal plane of symmetry that allows their mirror images to be superimposable
Specific rotation [a] of a molecule
Solutions of chiral compounds rotate planes of polarized light at angles unique to each compound
+
compounds that produce a clockwise rotation of plane polarized lighta are dextrorotatory (d)
-
compound that produces counterclockwise rotation are levorotatory (l)
Specific rotation of a chiral compound in solution can be calculated according to the equation
[a] = a/cl
§ a = observed rotation
§ c = concentration in g/mL
§ l = length of the polarimeter tube in decimeters (dm)
Amino acids are chiral or achiral
chiral
L-stereoisomers
- L-stereoisomers comprise the overwhelming majority of AA that occur in nature
D-isomers
D-isomers of carbohydrates occur in nature
Stereospecific enzymes
they only function for specific stereoisomers and the biological functionality of compounds can vary depending on their chirality
Fatty acids features
long hydrocarbon chain (usually linear with even number of carbons) and a terminal carboxylic acid group
- Hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head
- Saturated (no C=C pi bonds)
Unsaturated (1 or more C=C pi bonds)
Cholesterol and lipid rafts
within PM help contribute to the fluidity of the membrane at lower temperatures and to its stability at higher temperatures
Extractions
technique used to separate two or more compounds in solution by manipulating their solubility properties using acid-base chemistry
Acid-base chemistry can be used to tweak the protonation of functional groups to affect which layer they move to
Extraction setup
layer of less-dense organic (i.e. nonpolar) solvent on top of the layer of water (polar)
Nonpolar compounds in solution will move to the organic layer, while polar (or charged) compounds will be in the aqueous layer
1 M
- 1 M = 1 mol/L
- Mole = avogadro’s number (6.02 x 10^23 molecules)
nucleus charge
- Nucleus of an atom is always positive due to the presence of protons
Effective nuclear charge (Xeff)
attractive force of this positively-charged nucleus on the atom’s negatively-charged valence electrons
- As the number of protons in the nucleus increases from left to right across a period (or row) of the table, Xeff also increase since additional protons adds positive charge to the nucleus
- Xeff =/= # of protons held in an atom
- Xeff decreases as one moves down a group as atomic size increases
- Atomic size or radius = 1/Xeff
§ Atomic radius decreases from left to right across a period as Xeff increases and the addition of protons pulls the valence electrons closer to the nucleus
Cations have a ___ ionic radii than their corresponding uncharged element due to..
smaller; due to lack of electrons to become positively charged
Anions have a ____ atomic size than the corresponding uncharged element due to ;..
larger; the addition of electrons
Magnetic fields are generated by
magnetic materials or moving charges (e.g. current in a wire)
Magnetic materials always have both a north and south pole (aka positive and negative electric fields)
Magnetic field (B):
induced by moving charges in a straight wire has a strength of B = µoI/2r
- µo = Permeability of free space (constant) - I = current running through the wire - r = the distance from the wire
Magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has field lines that run in the
concentric circles, and the directionality is determined by one of two right-handed rules
To determine the direction of the magnetic field at a point around a current-carrying wire
align your right thumb with the direction of the current flow and your fingers will curve around in the direction of the field
To determine the effects of a magnetic field on a moving particle
your thumb is used to indicate the direction in which the charge is moving, fingers are used to indicate the direction of the magnetic field
§ The resulting force either points up or down from your palm
§ Up = positive charge
§ Down from the back of hand = negative charge
Force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving charge
FB= q∙v∙B∙sin(θ)
- q = magnitude of the charge - v = velocity - B = the strength of the magnetic field - Θ = the angle of the velocity of the particle to the magnetic field
Autocrine
secreting hormones into the same cell
Paracrine
secreting hormones to nearby cell
Juxtracrine
secreting hormones to neighbor cell
Endocrine
secreting hormones into blood and then into distant cell
Peptide hormones
made of AA - mostly hydrophilic
○ Vast majority of hormones are protein base
○ Act faster
○ E.g. insulin, glucagon, FSH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, GH, stimulating hormone, ADH, Oxytocin, endorphines
Steroid hormones
made of cholesterol derivative
○ E.g. Vitamin D3, aldosterone (adrenal cortex), cortisol, progesterone, Testosterone, estradiol
○ Testosterone, progesterone, and estradiol made in the Gonads
○ Testosterone, cortisol, and aldosterone are made in the adrenal cortex
○ Act slowly and longer lasting
○ Pass through lipid membranes -> receptor inside the cell -> affects transcription
§ Regulate protein synthesis needed
Amino Acid derived hormones
○ One amino acid (not peptide) -> Act like peptide hormone
○ Tryptophan (W) => melatonin
Tyrosine (Y) => Dopamine, noradrenaline (norepinephrine), epinephrine (adrenaline), T3, T4
Noradrenaline, adrenaline
both NT and hormones -> acute stress (fight or flight)
Glutamate
NT and AA
Posterior pituitary
mostly brain tissue - contains neurons
§ Connected to hypothalamus (regulates and analyses blood) -> These hormones are made in the hypothalamus but released from the posterior pituitary into the blood stream
§ Hormones: ADH (vasopressin), Oxytocin (bonding, uteri contractions -> positive feedback loop))
Anterior pituitary
receives a signal from hypothalamus
§ Mnemonic: FLAT PEG (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Endorphin, GH)
Anterior pituitary
FLAT
tropic hormones
□ Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - stimulates uterine follicles to grow & causes Sertoli cells to make sperm -> causing estrogen and progesterone production in the gonads
□ Luteinizing hormone (LH) -> causes ovulation (women) & testosterone production in Laydig cells (men) in gonads
□ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - causes adrenal cortex to release cortisol (chronic stress hormone) (HPA axis)
□ Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH) -> causes thyroid to make T3, and T4 -> which increase metabolism and cause eyes to bulge
® Thyroid gets smaller as we age
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - causes adrenal cortex to release cortisol (chronic stress hormone) (HPA axis)
® Cortisol makes you hungry, tired (saves energy), raises blood sugar, deposit fat (central body), lowers immune system (conserve energy)
® Negative feedback loop - high cortisol will lead to lower ACTH
Anterior pituitary
PEG
Direct hormones: has an effect right awy
□ Prolactin -> milk development and production
® Women stop producing prolactin whenever they stop breastfeeding
□ Endorphin -> make you feel good and inhibit pain
® E.g. opioids: morphine, heroin, Vicodin, fentanyl, methadone
□ Growth Hormone -> makes bones and muscles grow
Releasing hormone
from the hypothalamus and goes through the anterior pituitary
Cushing’s Disease Syndrome
○ Deposit fat in face and abdomen, obesity, the buffalo hump
○ Seen in people of lower SES -> chronic stressor
Exercise, walk, mediation can lower cortisol
steroid injection
- If you have an autoimmune disorder -> get steroid injection -> to lower immune response to reduce swelling, inflammation, and pain
Giving cortisol does not cause stress
Disparate
essentially different in kind; not allowing comparison
Populism
political approach that strives to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their concerns are disregarded by establishing elite groups
Expropriation
the action by the sate or an authority of taking property from its owner for public use or benefit
Technocratic
relating to or characterized by the government or control of society or industry by an elite or technical experts
Coalition
alliance for combined action, especially a temporary alliance of political parties forming a government or of states
Partisanship
prejudice in favor of a particular cause; bias
Pluralism
condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority coexist; the practice of holding more than one office or church benefice at a time
Disillusion
disappointment resulting from the discovery that something is not as good as one believed it to be; cause someone to realize that a belief or an ideal is false
Eschews
deliberately avoid using; abstain from
Parables
simple story used to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson
Collate
collect and combine in proper order; appoint to a benefice
Pragmatism
an approach that assesses the truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application - real life effects
Detractor
a person who disparages someone or something
Disparage
regard or represent as being of little worth
Hypothalamus releases
TRH, CRH, GHRH, dopamine, somatostatin, vasopressin
pineal gland
melatonin
thyroid and parathyroid
T3, T4, calcitonin, PTH
Adrenal
androgens, glucocorticoids, adrenaline, noradrenaline
kidney
calcitriol, renin, erythropoietin
Testes
androgens, estradiol, inhibin
Stomach
gastrin, Ghrelin, Histamine, somatostatin, neuropeptide Y
Pancreas
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin
ovary, Placenta
estrogens, progesterone
uterus
prolactin, relaxin
5 main ways to increase power of an experiment:
○ Increase the alpha level ○ Decrease random error ○ Conduct a one-tailed test ○ Expand the sample size Increase the effect size
Social support forms:
- emotional (e.g. empathy and condolences)
- esteem-based (e.g. statements like “I know you can do it!”)
- material (e.g. money)
- informational (e.g. mentorship from someone further along in one’s professional field),
- network-based (e.g. group hug, lot of likes)
Social support benefits
reduce incidence of depression and anxiety
○ Lessen one’s inclination towards other mental health issues and substance abuse
Low social support effect
Higher mortality rates from many diseases
Companionship support
gives someone a sense of belonging
Instrumental support
tangible help that others may provide to an individual (e.g. help with childcare/housekeeping)
Piaget’s stages
stages of cognitive development of children + adolescents
Kohlberg’s stages
stages of moral reasoning address how people reason through moral dilemma
Freudian defense mechanisms
unconscious mind can develop defense mechanisms to protect the ego from anxiety or from situations with which a person cannot cope
Maslow’s Hierarchy
outlines how people prioritize basic physiological needs over other needs in life such as safety or belonging
George Mead on self identity
2 versions of self
developed through social interactions
○ 2 versions of self
§ Me = social self = attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking
I = response to me, the social self = part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity
Self actualization
individual’s striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities
Self-awareness
peak level of consciousness, which signifies perception of the autobiographical character of a person’s life experience`
Self concept
an individual’s mental model of his or her abilities and attributes
Self-efficacy
belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation
Self-esteem
analogized to self-image - the attitude which influences moods and exerts a powerful effect on an individual’s personal and social behaviors
Self-handicapping
process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure
Self-perception theory
people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do
Cultural capital
a social asset (not money) that helps provide social mobility beyond simple monetary resources
Social reproduction
transmission of ideas, values, and behaviors between generations that lead the younger generation to reproduce the social status or structure of their parents
Looking-glass self
notion that we construct our identity from our interpersonal interactions and the perception of others
Social sanction
rule enforced by a government - fine or imprisonment
Depersonalization
symptom of serious mental illness in which a person feels like they have stepped outside themselves and is watching themselves act with no sense of control over their behavior
Serial position effect
short-term memory is more likely to retain pieces of information from the beginning and end of a list
○ Recency effect = tendency to recall items near the end of a list
○ Primacy effect = tendency to recall those presented first on a list
Sensory memory
2 main types
initial recording of encoded sensory information - most fleeting form of memory storage
○ 2 main types =
§ Iconic memory = visual information and lasting only a few tenths of a second
§ Echoic memory = responsible for auditory information and lasting 3-4 sec
Short term memory
last closer to 30 seconds without repetition
○ ~7 pieces of info at once
Bolstered by mnemonic devices
Working memory
element of short term memory that allows us to consciously process and manipulate a few pieces of information
○ Interplay between short term memory, attention, and executive function of the brain
Long term memory
potentially infinite capacity
○ Implicit = nondeclarative memory = acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli + procedural memory (motor skills and specific physical actions)
§ Cerebellum plays a primary role in encoding implicit memories
○ Explicit = declarative memory = memories that we must consciously recall with effort and focus
§ Hippocampus plays a primary role in encoding explicit memories
Acute stressor
present over short period of time
Microstressor
small daily hassles like traffic or irritating coworkers
Crisis
sudden, rare occurrence such as a natural disaster or war that causes a person a great deal of stress
Ambient stressors
chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed (or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them
○ E.g. economy, climate change
Behavioral extinction
conditioned behavior ceases due to an absence of reinforcement
Mesolimbic (Reward) pathway
involved in addiction and compulsive behavior
○ Made up of Nacc, VTA, and areas that connect to them, the medial forebrain bundle
○ Related to motivation and emotional response
○ Drugs can act as positive reinforcement with continued usage
○ All activities that produce psychological dependence including drug use, gambling, and even falling in love activate the mesolimbic pathway
nigrostriatal bundle
associated with movement
Basal ganglia
closely associated with the control and regulation of the motor and premotor cortical areas - found in midbrain and ensures that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly
Operant extinction
decline of an operant response when it is no longer reinforced
Conditioned stimulus
previously neutral stimulus that after becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response
Aversive conditioning
behavioral conditioning technique in which obnoxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behaviors
○ If successful, the individual reduces the frequency of the unwanted behavior
Social cues
vocal or non-vocal suggestion that can be positive or negative -> these guide conversation and other social interactions
○ E.g. facial expression, tone of voice, and body language
Gene expression
transcribing more or less of a gene in response to the cell’s needs
Promoters
regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase
Enhancers
DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop bringing distant regions in to close proximity for transcription to begin -> expression is upregulated
Silencers
regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind
Methylation
- Methylation of C and A residues can reduce transcription
Methylation -> epigenetics (inheritable phenotypic changes involving mechanisms other than the alternation of the genome itself)
Acetylation
promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern, allowing transcription factors to access the genome easily
○ Gene expression regulation at level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones)
Deacetylation attracts DNA to histones more tightly -> inhibiting transcription
Non-coding RNA
Non-coding RNA -> gene expression -> silence gene by interrupting the expression between transcription and translation
microRNA (miRNA)
incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop
Small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules
short and double stranded
Monocytes are the largest type of white blood cells
factors secreted by the epithelium help form a cascade that leads to accumulation of immune cells at the site of an injury
3 main types of cell junctions (ways in which neighboring cells interact with each other):
○ Anchor junctions
○ Gap junctions
Tight junctions
Anchor junctions
connect cytoskeletal components of the cell with other cells and/or the extracellular matrix - contributing to the structural stability of tissues
○ include adherens junctions which are associated with cadherins
○ Cadherin-mediated connections between actin filaments and other cells and the extracellular matrix
○ Desmosomes involve cadherins - connects intermediate filaments to other cells
Hemidesmosomes - junctions in which integrins connect the intermediate filaments of cells to the extracellular matrix
Gap junctions
formed by connexin proteins which connect cells where diffusion can take place between them, enabling communication without involving direct contact between cytoplasmic fluids of each cell
○ Less common but play certain crucial roles within the body
Cardiac muscles - gap junctions allow cells to contract at the same time
Gap junctions
formed by connexin proteins which connect cells where diffusion can take place between them, enabling communication without involving direct contact between cytoplasmic fluids of each cell
○ Less common but play certain crucial roles within the body
Cardiac muscles - gap junctions allow cells to contract at the same time
Tight junctions
found in epithelial cells - near impenetrable barrier
○ The cells in tight junctions are linked very closely together preventing solutes from being able to move freely from one tissue into another
E.g. blood brain barrier -> epithelial cells in blood vessels in the brain form very tight junctions that allow the close regulation of which substances from the bloodstream can enter the CNS
Leaky epithelia
epithelial tissue that have relatively few tight junctions (e.g. some parts of kidney)
Glycine
achiral AA - does not rotate plane-polarized light
Ploidy
how many copies of each chromosome a cell has
Somatic cells
cell of the body -> In humans the vast majority of cells are diploid (2n) -> contain 2 copies of each chromosome
Germ Cells
(i.e. ova and spermatozoa) haploid (n; single copy of each chromosome)
Aneuploidy
results from having too many or too few copies of chromosome
○ Results from nondisjunction in anaphase during cell division
○ Commonly occurs in meiosis -> only way for aneuploidy to be inheritable
E.g. down syndrome (trisomy 21) or Turner syndrome (monosomy X)
Nondisjunction during mitosis
Nondisjunction during mitosis can also occur -> extremely common in cancer cells
Monosomy
having only one copy of a chromosome
Trisomy
having 3 copies of a chromosome
Centriole
cylindrical structure that helps organize microtubules
Nucleolus
site of cellular rRNA transcription and processing -> location for ribosome assembly
Lysosome
degrade materials taken up from outside the cell (endocytosis) and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself (autophagy)
Contain hydrolases that operate best at acidic pH levels (4.5-5.0)
Rough ER
covered in ribosomes which are site of protein synthesis
Smooth ER
no ribosomes and is involved in lipid metabolism (both synthesis and breakdown), production of steroid hormones, and detoxification
Peroxisomes
play a major role in the metabolism of long chain lipids by breaking them down to medium-chain lipids that are transported to the mitochondria for further processing and plays a role in detoxification of substances such as ethanol
Human genome
Human genome contains ~3 billion base pairs compressed to fit into the human nuclei (6 μm aka 6 × 10^-6 m in size)
DNA compression done by
- DNA compression done by
○ Subdividing the genome into linear chromosomes
○ Histones
Chromatin
Histones
proteins that act as spools for DNA to wind around
○ Composed of various subunits known as H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4
○ Core of the histone contains 2 dimers of H2A and H2B and a tetramer of H3 and H4
○ H1 serves as a linking unit
○ ~200 base pairs of DNA can be wound around a histone
Highly alkaline and positively charged at physiological pH which facilitate their interaction with highly negatively charged phosphate groups on the backbone of DNA
Nucleosome
complex formed by DNA and histone; “beads and string”
Chromatin
structure formed by many nucleosomes
2 distinct forms of chromatin exist
○ Euchromatin = loose configuration that is difficult to see under light microscopy and allows DNA to be readily transcribed
§ Throughout interphase (most of cell cycle), DNA generally exists as euchromatin
○ Heterochromatin = tightly coiled dense form of chromatin that is visible during cell division and is present to a lesser extent even during interphase
Lipid categories:
○ Fatty acid and its derivatives = triacyclglycerols, phospholipids, sphingolipids
○ Cholesterol and its derivatives = steroid hormones and vitamin D)
○ Prostaglandins
○ Terpenes
○ Terpenoids
Sucrose
glucose + fructose
Lactose
glucose + galactose
Maltose
glucose + glucose
Polysaccharides (starch and glycogen)
polymers of glucose that are used for energy storage in plants and animals
Neuromuscular junction
where muscles receive signal to contract from AP down motor (efferent) neurons
○ Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the cell membrane (sarcolemma) in muscle cells -> sarcolemma depolarizes in response
○ Results in an AP -> AP reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum -> Ca2+ is released in the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm in muscle cells) -> Ca2+ binds to troponin which allows contraction to take place
Recrystallization
purify a solid product that contains impurities
○ Distillation of the solid in a solvent and subsequent heating
○ The solid then dissolves and is cooled, causing it to solidify (crystallize) again
○ Each subsequent recrystallization results in a progressively purer compound
Mass spectrometry
used to measure the size of one molecule and would not be useful to carry out separation of two molecules
○ Ionizes molecule and breaks it into smaller ion fragments
○ After procedure -> left with 2 samples that could be subjected to further analysis
Antibodies
let body know when it needs to mobilize the immune response
○ They must recognize substances/cells that need to be eliminated and be recognized by other components of the immune system
○ Y shape with 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains linked by disulfide bonds
○ The top ends of the Y shaped structure (part with both heavy and light chains) have hypervariable antigen recognizing area and the rest of the antibody structure can be recognized by other cells of the immune system
○ Used in adaptive immune system - esp B cells
Antigen
what antibodies recognize - are often macromolecules expressed on the surface of a cell or a viral envelope/capsule
Epitope
specific site on an antigen that is recognized by an antibody
Extensive random recombination of the antigen-recognizing area of the antibody (aka paratope) allows the generation of antibodies that recognize potentially infinitely many types of antigens
Bicarbonate Buffering
○ Carbonic acid (H2CO3) has the conjugate base of HCO3-
○ When protons are added to the solution from an external source -> some of the bicarbonate in the buffer is converted to carbonic acid using up the protons added
○ When hydroxide ions are added to the solution, protons are dissociated from some of the carbonic acid in the buffer, converting it to bicarbonate and replacing the proton lost
Buffers resist pH changes the best when ..
the pH values are at or near the pKa value for the acid/base used -> that is when the conjugate acid and base have equal concentrations
Hyperventilation
(rapid shallow breathing) results in excess CO2 being expelled from the blood, causing pH to rise
○ In response - the buffer needs to release more H+ to lower the pH back to physiological norms
- Mechanisms in the body are also used to regulate pH since carbonic acid works best at pH..
below physiological conditions because its pKa1 (6.3) is much lower than the normal pH of blood (7.4)
Cofactors
helper molecules for enzymes -> inorganic (e.g. Mg2+, Zn2+, and Cu+) or organic, and organic cofactors (sometimes called coenzymes)
Coenzymes
many coenzymes are vitamins or derivatives of vitamins -> contribute to the function of enzymes by carrying certain functional groups from on place to another in a reaction
Coenzyme A
transfers acyl groups from one place to another
Prosthetic group
Coenzymes are tightly (or even covalently) bonded to their enzyme
○ E.g. heme = organometallic prosthetic group
Vitamins
non-macronutrient organic compounds that are vital for healthy functioning
Cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts by the body -> must be obtained from external sources
Water soluble vitamins
vitamin B and C
Lipid soluble vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E, and K
Vitamin A
key role in vision
Vitamin D
in calcium and phosphate absorption from the gastrointestinal tract
Vitamin E
antioxidant
Vitamin K
promotes coagulation (liquid to solid/semi-solid state)
Minerals
contribute to essential roles in the body and must be obtained from the diet but are inorganic
○ E.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
Restriction enzyme
aka restriction endonucleases - occur in prokaryotes and archaea
○ They act as defense system against invading viruses by cleaving foreign DNA at very specific locations or recognition sites
○ Utilized in lab to cleave target DNA
Genetic Recombination
DNA fragments that are ligated together
Recognition sites for restriction enzymes
correspond to sequences of 4 to 8 bases
Recognition sites usually contain some degree of symmetry often palindromic sequences
Palindromic sequences
sequence of bases when read from 5’ to 3’ on one strand is the same as the sequence of the other strand read from 5’ to 3’
Blunt ends
when restriction enzyme cleaves a DNA sequence vertically across the recognition site then the resulting fragments have blunt ends
Sticky ends
result from restriction enzymes that cleave a DNA sequence in a zig zag fashion
○ particularly desirable in a laboratory setting because they ensure that the DNA fragments are ligated or connected together in the proper orientation
Type I Restriction Enzyme
cleave at sites remote from the recognition site -> they require both ATP and S-adenosyl-L-methionine to function
Type II Restriction Enzyme
cleave within or at short specific distances from their recognition sites and often require magnesium
Type III Restriction Enzyme
cleave at sites a short distance from their recognition sites and require ATP (but do not hydrolyze it) -> S-adenosyl-L-methionine stimulates this reaction but not required
Type IV Restriction Enzyme
target modified (e.g. methylated, hydroxy methylated) DNA
Azide
N3- is a powerful nucleophile which can readily add to available electrophiles
The amount of base (or acid) required to fully neutralize an acid (or base) is given by the equation
NacidVacid =NbaseVbase
○ Relates the normalities and volumes of the 2 solutions
○ For monoprotic species where normality and molarity are equal, this simplifies to the fundamental concept of “moles acid = moles base”
○ Polyprotic species, it can be described as moles H+ = mole OH-
§ In a titration, complete neutralization occurs at a position => equivalence point
Gall bladder
involved in secreting bile (non-enzymatic substance that facilitates the digestion of fats) for digestion
Small intestine
located adjacent to the stomach - chyme (partially digested food) enters the small intestine from the stomach through the pyloric sphincter
○ 3 parts: duodenum, jejunum, and the ilium
○ Chyme enters the duodenum from the acidic stomach -> neutralized by bicarbonate ions secreted by the intestinal cells
Small intestine performs 2 key function:
○ Continues and completes chemical digestion (enzymatic breakdown) of dietary molecules
begins the absorption of the product molecules into the body by the small intestine’s large SA or brush border
Large intestine
absorption not digestion takes place - found between the small intestine and the anus
○ Last resort for the absorption of already broken down nutrients
○ Absorbs a lot of water -> transition watery chyme to solid feces
○ Hosts gut microbiota = huge community of intestinal bacteria -> benefits including the synthesis of vitamin K
Transmembrane proteins
membrane-spanning proteins with hydrophilic cytosolic and extracellular domains and a hydrophobic membrane spanning domain
Peripheral proteins
only transiently attached to integral proteins or peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer
Lipid-anchored proteins
covalently bound to membrane lipids without actually contacting the membrane directly
Primary active transport
energy used to move against gradient through a transmembrane channel
Facilitated diffusion
form of passive transport where no energy is necessary because molecules go down concentration gradient but transmembrane channel is necessary because the molecules are too large or polar for simple diffusion
Secondary active transport
energy stored in an electrochemical gradient established via primary active transport is used to facilitate the movement of solute
○ E.g. Na+/K+ pump which was previously established by primary active transport mechanism into the cell while transporting one Ca2+ out
Endocytosis
ingest larger materials - recognition of a target molecule at the plasma membrane and then invagination and the formation of a vesicle on the inside of the cell
○ Pinocytosis = cell engulf liquid substances
○ Phagocytosis = engulf solid particles
Exocytosis
release hormones, NT, membrane proteins and lipids, and other materials
Electronegative
wants electrons/ electron affinity
○ Only apply to atoms
Reduction potential
electron affinity
○ Negative reduction potential -> wants electrons less than the positive reduction potentials
○ H+ is 0 = reference value reduction potential
Electroplating
covering a metal with another metal
○ One electrode will get bigger and heavier and the other electrode will dissolve
○ The one that has a larger reduction potential will be the cathode (for reduction)
Red cat; An Ox
○ Anode is always the source of oxidation - losing electrons
○ Cathode is always the source of reduction - cathode is whatever is gaining electrons
Current
the opposite direction of the flow of electrons
Ecell Ecat - Eanode
E is measured in volts and a measure of reduction potential
∆G = -nFE°cell
○ F = faraday’s constant = round to 100,000 for MCAT
○ n = number of electrons being moved (integer)
○ E°cell = Ecat - Eanode
○ ∆G = gibbs free energy measured in J/mole
§ Negative when E°cell is positive
§ Positive when E°cell is negative
§ E°cell and ∆G will always have opposite signs
Galvanic/voltaic cell
spontaneous voltage from the cell
Charging
reverses the spontaneous galvanic/voltaic cell => turns into electrolytic cell
○ Requires an outside source -> not spontaneous
○ Cathode and anode switch from galvanic/voltage
○ Flips the galvanic cell reduction potential sign from positive to negative
○ -E°cell = nonspontaneous
Positive
wants electrons more - regardless of the direction of electron flow
Can be negatively charged because if it is less negative than the anode, the electrons wants to go to the side with less electron
Negative
ants electrons less - regardless of the direction of electron flow
electrolytic cell
all gels require a power source
Dead battery
the electrons stop moving across the wire because the water of both electrodes become more negative or positive and eventually the electrons will not want to move across due to electrochemical gradient
Salt bridge
balance out charge buildup in the water to allow the battery to keep working until one of the metals are completely dissolved
○ Prolongs the battery life
Nernst Equation
Ecell = E°cell - (0.0592V/n)logQ
○ log1 = 0; when Q = 1, Ecell = E°cell
§ Q = electro reaction coefficient - concentrations of stuff now; how far the reaction has progressed
§ Keq = concentration of stuff at equilibrium
○ Ecell = battery charge in current situation
§ Ecell = 0 when battery is dead
§ Q = Keq when battery is dead
○ E°cell = battery at normal condition - fully charged
As the battery is used, the Ecell (voltage) will ___ and Q will ___ as products are formed
decrease; increase
Electron Transport Chain -> kind of like a battery
Get energy out of it -> galvanic cell
are Photons charged?
no
Electromagnetic Radiation
light/photon
Light
oscillation to the electric and magnetic field
- Light is a particle and a wave
Waves can go around corners
High energy photons
UV rays, X-rays, and Gamma Rays
○ Actively admitting radiation = radioactive
○ Danger
Velocity of waves
λf
speed of light
C = 3 x 10^8 m/s
Gamma rays
= really high energy -> low λ and high frequency
Energy of photon
E = hf
○ h = constant (don’t worry)
Photoelectric effect
photon knocks off an electron
○ Some things are easier to knock of electrons than others
○ Photons are not additive - many small energy photons cannot knock off electron that is higher energy
Photoelectric effect
Some things are easier to knock of electrons than others
e.g. benzene, propane, copper
○ Benzene is aromatic so if an electron gets knocked off, the resonance allow the radical to switch from one carbon to another -> more stable
§ Something like Visible or UV rays may be able to knock off
§ The more aromatic = the more colourful -> easier to knock off electron
○ Propane -> 3 carbons linked -> really does not want to lose an electron
§ Requires high energy photons to knock off electrons
○ Copper is really easy to knock off electron; they want to be charged -> microwave can turn it into a charged atom -> that’s why we cannot microwave metal since metals are really good conductors
UV and DNA
UV rays can turn DNA into radical because DNA is aromatic-> causing mutations so we need sunscreen
Chromophores
something colourful -> lots of conjugations and aromatic rings that absorb light esp visible light
Black body radiation
when things heat up, anything body temperature -> emit light in the infrared spectrum
○ The hotter and warmer it is, it will emit light in the visible light spectrum
Fire = hot air that is glowing and emitting light in the visible spectrum
Radio waves
high λ and low frequency = very low energy
○ It cannot cause electrons to be knocked off than anything
○ Radio waves = light not sound
Radio antennas convert light radio waves to sound
5 G
cell phone towers that communicate for phonecalls for 5 different frequencies of microwaves
Young’s experiment
proved that light is a wave
○ Setup with 2 holes
Constructive and destructive interference is only done with waves
Constructive interference
crests of two waves are additive (larger wave).
Troughs of two waves - larger wave
Destructive interference
crest of one and trough of another - waves cancel out = Dark band
Converging lens
convex = can converge light into a single point - can start fire
Diverging lens
concave = spreads out light
○ Used to treat myopia (near sightedness) to focus light further back on to the retina
Converging mirror
concave and reflect to certain point - opposite of lens
Diverging mirror
convex - light reflects to the sides
f = (1/2)r
§ Focal length will always be half of the radius
§ Curvature matters not the actual thickness of the lens
§ Converging mirror
(1/f) = (1/o) + (1/i)
§ Highest yield equation
§ o = object distance from the lens
§ i = image distance from the lens
m =(-i/o)
Power (diopters) = 1/f
§ Power of the lens is inverse to focal length
§ Prescription = measurement of power of lens
ciliary muscle
When ciliary muscle constricts the lens and makes it thinner -> increase in radius of curvature
Image distance:
○ + = real image
§ Look through lens and see something on the other side -> converging lens
§ Look through mirror and sees something on the same side
○ - = virtual image
Look through lens -> diverging lens
Look through mirror -> diverging mirror
Focal distance:
\+ = converging - = diverging
Magnification:
○ + = upright
○ - = inverted
○ |m| > 1 => magnified
|m| <1 => smaller/reduced
Ferromagnetic materials
composed of unpaired electrons -> each atom has a net magnetic dipole
○ When not in the presence of an external magnetic field the atoms will orient randomly and produce no net magnetic field
○ Become more strongly magnetized than paramagnetic materials in the presence of an external magnetic field
Bar magnets
magnetized objects which have a distinct north and south pole
When bar magnets are placed in a magnetic field, the north side of the bar magnet will be attracted to the south pole of the external magnetic field
Paramagnetic materials
composed of unpaired electrons - each atom has a net magnetic dipole
○ When not in the presence of an external magnetic field, the atoms will orient randomly and produce no net magnetic field
Less strongly magnetized than ferromagnetic materials in the presence of an external magnetic field
A moving current will always create ..
a magnetic field since it is a moving charge (+/-
Diamagnetic materials
composed of paired electrons and have no net dipole magnetic field
○ Repelled by magnetic fields instead of being attracted to magnetic fields
Magnetic field strength SI unit
tesla = (N x s)/(m x C)
Same Dave
sensory afferent motor efferent, dorsal afferent ventral efferent
Mnemonic for path of sperm in the male reproductive system
Seve up = seminiferous tubules, epideminis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis
Mnemonic for substrates that show up in the kreb’s cycle
Can I keep Selling Sex for Money Officer
○ Citrate -> isocitrate -> alpha-ketoglutarate -> succinyl-coA -> succinate -> fumarate -> malate -> oxaloacetate
Mnemonic for stop codons
U Get A’s, U Are Great, U Are Awesome = UGA UAG UAA
Mnemonic for base pairs
Cut The Pie - cysteine, thymine -> pyrimidine (one ring), Pure As Gold - adenine, guanine -> purine (two ring)
sound
longitudinal wave (oscillation same direction as the propagation of the wave)
○ Oscillations go back and forth near the same area (longitudinal wave)
○ The propagation goes outwards from the source of sound
○ The total energy is the same as the sound propagates -> the same energy is just spread out
Graph to show sound
transverse wave (oscillations up and down) Y-axis = density of particles
Silent in space because in a vacuum
there is not air particles to be pushed back and forth
Noise cancelling headphones
plays sound that allows destructive interference of the sound wave coming into the headphones
Sound travelling through material
the more the medium resists compression, the faster the sound will travel
Air is moving before sound hits
sound energy is lost fast while travelling through air
Sound travels faster and better in liquid because
the particles are close to each other
Sound travels through __ even better and faster
solids
more resistant to compression
better faster travel of sound
When the medium (solid, liquid, gas) is the same
the less dense medium is better for sound travel
High bulk modulus
difficult to compress
Sound travelling through air
340 m/s
air molecules travelling through helium
- Air molecules are travelling faster when inhaling helium (super light) -> higher frequency and higher pitch
○ When the medium is lighter -> the particles can be pushed more easily/faster -> faster velocity
Shock wave
density is so large in the oscillations can push things and people so hard that it can kill them
echo
Sound travelling from one medium to another - some of the sound will bounce off the denser medium
○ Loss of energy of the sound when it hits a denser medium due to some of the sound bouncing off
○ Distance from wall to source of sound from echo = velocity x time / 2 = total distance of sound travelled /2
Ultrasound
using sound to identify where harder objects are inside the body because sound bounces off better off a baby than other tissue
○ Ultrasound = sound frequency that are too high for us to hear
thunder and lightning
happen at the same time but the light travels much faster than the sound (thunder)
Range of sound that we can hear
20Hz to 20,000Hz
The Doppler Effect
the actual frequency from the observed frequency (relative) due to the movement of the sound source
E.g. car - higher pitch (higher frequency) going towards you and lower pitch (lower frequency) leaving
numerator: + observer towards source
- observer away from source
f = fo (v +/- vo)/(v +/- vs)
denominator: + source away form observer
- source towards observer
v= velocity of sound
Sonic boom
hitting sound barrier (going faster than the speed of sound) - all the sound played will hit the target at the same time - super loud
Mach 1
wound source travelling at the speed of sound (340 m/s) loud bang due to doppler effect
Mach 2
twice the speed of sound - plays in reverse (680 m/s)
SN1
- SN1 reaction produces a racemic (enantiomeric) mixture of products because it is able to attack the electrophile from two directions
○ SN1 is a unimolecular substitution reaction which occurs in 2 steps
○ 1st step = rate limiting step, the electrophile forms an electron-poor carbocationic intermediate
○ 2nd step = an electron donating nucleophile donates its electrons to the electron poor intermediate
Racemic mixture
an equal amount of R and S enantiomers
SN2 biomolecular substitution reaction
occurs when an electron donating nucleophile donates its electrons to an electrophile that is bonded to an adequate leaving group
Occurs in a single step, so the nucleophile must come in close proximity to the electrophile
Leaving group
molecule on an electrophile that is removed from the electrophile and leaving group
○ A better leaving group is one that is relatively more stable after it has become more negatively charged when it ha acquired electrons
○ Weaker bases (stronger acids) are better at stabilizing negative charge and are better leaving groups
Electrical field lines
the movement of a positive test charge -> should point from positive to negative
Minimum distance at which electrodes can be placed
determined by the time for the signaling of the AP, and the speed at which the pulse can travel
Ohm’s Law
V= IR
○ Resistance per unit length so we need length to determine total resistance
- Common ion effect = acids dissolve in bases and bases dissolve in acids
Common ion effect
acids dissolve in bases and bases dissolve in acids
Steroid hormone
4 fused ring system common to cholesterol and all of the steroid hormones
Silver Oxide
used to test for reducing sugars - sugar must have a hemiacetal to produce a silver mirror when reacted with silver oxide
○ For a sugar to be able to reduce another compound, it should be able to be oxidized
§ This occurs when the ring of he sugar is opened at a hemiacetal to form an aldehyde intermediate
Hemiacetal in a sugar
look for an oxygen-containing ring with an alcohol directly attached to a carbon that is adjacent to the oxygen, the anomeric carbon
Reducing agent
reduces its target and is oxidized in the process.
○ E.g. Oxidation is the loss of electrons and NADPH loses electrons as evidenced by the production of the positively charged NADP+
Redox reaction
change in oxidation states
double Replacement reaction
exchange of cations (or anions) between TWO different substances
Ionization reaction
dissociation of a compound into ions to generate an acidic or basic solution
○ When a weak acid HA dissolves in water, some of the compound dissociates into ions and this generates and acidic solution
○ Produces free electrons
If the solution is higher inside the buret than outside - air pressure is
air pressure outside is higher than the pressure inside -> at that point, the fluid pressures are equal and cancel out
○ Th fluid level inside the buret rises to increase the contribution of the fluid pressure until a new equilibrium is reached
○ The air pressure in the buret must have been smaller than the ambient pressure
○ P(ambient) = P(extra fluid height) + P(air inside buret)
Ideal gas law
PV = nRT
Doppler effect ultrasound equation
relates frequency of the ultrasound wave as detected by a moving detector to the frequency of the wave when the source is stationary, the speed of the source, and the speed of the detector
○ Allows us to image using ultrasound and to determine minimum variables and values that would be needed for the imaging
Fluorine unlike other halogens is
great at hydrogen bonding which increases boiling point
The principle quantum number describes
the energy of a given orbital or electron cloud in which an electron resides
○ Energy is influenced by the distance between two charges so the radial size of the cloud would influence how much energy is in each electron cloud
○ As the radius and the size of the electron cloud changes, so does energy
Ibuprofen
has both a hydrophobic part and a polar carboxylic acid - like fatty acid
To calculate the heat required to increase a substance by a given temperature
use thermodynamic equation q = mC∆T
○ C = specific heat measured in J/(kg*Celcius)
IR spectrum absorption values
○ Carboxyl group (C=O) stretching frequency falls in the region 1700 - 1750 cm-1
○ Hydroxyl group (-OH) stretching frequency fall in the region 3200-3500cm-1
Enzymes are often
stereospecific and preferentially forming one enantiomer because a lower energy chiral transition state leads to the preferred product
Sublimation
conversion of a solid into gas without passing through the liquid phase
○ no melting or heating would be involved
Archimedes principle
F(buoyant) = weight of displaced fluid = P(fluid)V(object)g
Carboxylic acid at pH 7 has a charge of
-1
Phosphate group at pH 7 has a charge of
-2
Coenzyme A contains
B-Mercaptoethylamine, pantothenate, ADP with additional 3’-phosphate
Doppler Effect
allows the observer to distinguish between a stationary and a moving object that reflects ultrasound waves
Doppler effect describes the change in perceived frequency when there is relative motion between a source and an observer
Power
- Power = Work (J)/time (sec)
Power is measured in Watts
When checking for balanced reaction:
○ Same number of molecules and ratio is balanced on either side of the reaction
The charge is the same on both sides of the equation
“Has actually”
continuing an argument made in the previous paragraph
Frivolous
not having any serious purpose or value
Congenial
(of a person) pleasant because of a personality, qualities, or interests that are similar to one’s own
Mercurial
subject to sudden or unpredictable changes of mood or mind
Eviscerated
disembowel - remove the gut
Arias
a long accompanied song for a solo voice, often opera
Purported
appearing or stated to be true though not necessarily so; alleged
Putative
generally considered or reputed to be
Emphatic
showing or giving emphasis; expressing something forcibly and clearly
Complacency
a feeling of smug or uncritical satisfaction with oneself or one’s achievements
Epidemiological
relating to the branch of medicine in which deals with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases
Membrane association
localization to the phospholipid bilayers
Membrane association
localization to the phospholipid bilayers
Golgi apparatus
Only eukarya
The antigens that an antibody recognizes are not limited to
the same organism that created it
When immune system recognizes a different organisms antibody as foreign
it will mount an immune response that will lead to the production of anti-mouse antibodies
○ Immune response and allergic reaction
Recessive allele on X chromosome
○ + Mother = homozygous mutation -> all sons are show phenotype
○ Mother and father have at least one allele on X chromosome = + daughters
Process of transcription and post-translational modifications
○ DNA -> hnRNA or pre-mRNA -> mRNA
○ Intron splicing occurs prior to translation
Cytochrome c
moves electrons by going back and forth between Fe2+ (ferrous ion) and Fe3+ (ferric ion) -> can only transfer 1 electron at a time
Good PCR primer
high GC content (ideally 40-60%) at either end (stronger bonding - higher melting point, more stable for PCR setup)
Nondisjunction
process when paired chromosomes or duplicated chromosomes fail to separate and segregate in two distinct daughter cells -> Anaphase I
Transport affinity
how readily the transport protein will bind the substrate - inherent property of transport proteins
○ Independent of concentration of transport proteins
Average metabolic rate
internal variable that will help define the capability of an organism to withstand long periods of nutrient deprivation
○ Low metabolic rate organism is more suitable to withstand longer periods of food deprivation than an organism with a high metabolic rate
Euchromatin
form of DNA that is available for transcription
Heterochromatin
tightly packed with causes it to stain darker and is associated with silenced genes
May convert to euchromatin through acetylation or demethylation
Telomeres
protective regions of constitutive heterochromatin single stranded DNA that prevent the degradation of important, transcriptionally active DNA
Shorten with progressive chromosomal replication
Centromeres
heterochromatin (with double stranded DNA) in the middle of chromosome and binds to kinetochore during mitosis
Actin
microfilament
Intermediate filaments
provide mechanical support to the plasma membrane and position the nucleus in the cell (e.g. keratin)
Not microtubules or microfilaments
Sarcomere thin filaments
present in muscle cells
Flow of blood
heart -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> veins -> venules
Aerobic environment
pyruvate is brought into the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl coA
○ Glycolysis continues - pyruvate is produced
○ Pyruvic acid fermentation - process that takes place when the levels of oxygen are low
§ Lactic acid is the product of lactic acid fermentation which is an anaerobic fermentation -> lots of lactic acid produced
Anaerobic environment
acetyl coA will not be produced in a significant amount making it the correct answer
In systematic veins
higher CO2 concentration -> generation of more HCO3 -> influx of Cl- into RBCs
Lysosome
involved in retrograde transport with the help of dynein proteins
Endonuclease
cleave DNA and RNA bonds specifically between the 5’ and 3’ ends/middle
Exonuclease
cleave phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides - cleaves at the 5’ and 3’ ends and work their way in
Ribonuclease
cleave bonds specific to RNA nucleotide chains
- Entropic penalty = price paid for an unfavorable ordering of a system
○ Decrease in entropic penalty = decreasing the energetic price for the folding, so a switch between amino acids with similar characteristics such as valine to leucine
Increase in entropic penalty = increasing the energetic price for folding so swapping amino acids with different characteristics such as alanine to aspartate
Ectoderm
structures people are attracted to - epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands, hair follicles)
○ Epithelial lining of the mouth and anus
○ Cornea and lens of eye
○ Nervous system
○ Sensory receptors in epidermis
○ Adrenal medulla
○ Tooth enamel
○ Epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands
Mesoderm
movement of something ○ Notochord ○ Skeletal system ○ Muscular layer of stomach and intestine ○ Excretory system ○ Circulatory and lymphatic systems ○ Reproductive system (except germ cells) ○ Dermis of skin ○ Lining of body cavity ○ Adrenal cortex
Endoderm
smooth and bumpy twins lining the insides
○ Epithelial lining of the digestive tract
○ Epithelial lining of the respiratory system
○ Lining of urethra, urinary bladder, and reproductive system
○ Liver
○ Pancreas
○ Thymus
○ Thyroid and parathyroid glands
Existence of visuospatial sketchpad
holding visual and spatial information
Depth of processing
how much an individual thinks about specific information
○ E.g. skimming reading = shallow level of processing
§ Deeper level of processing = paying greater attention to the word
Spread activation
theory proposed that relates storage of memories to the activation of a series of nodes
Nodes create an activation pattern of other related nodes and this is how singular events are remembered
Proactive interference
occurs when old memories hinder the ability to make newer memories
Meritocracy
ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort or merit that determines social standing
Intergenerational mobility
phenomenon whereby children attains higher or lower status than their parents
Social reproduction
emphasis of the structures and activities that transmit social inequality from one generation to the next
Relative poverty
measure of wealth inequality describing an individual or group’s wealth relative to another individual or group
Social stratification
system of ranking individuals and groups within societies into socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power
Cultural relativism
practice of trying to understand a culture on its terms and to judge a culture by its standards - awareness of the differences in norms, values and practices between cultures
Sociology defines organization as a
relatively formal group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted action to achieve a common purpose
Group polarization
tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members
Anomie
the alienation one feels from a lack of social norms or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and his community ties, resulting in the fragmentation of social identity
Can lead to feelings of aimlessness or purposelessness and occurs more frequently in periods of rapid social change
Gardner’s idea of eight intelligences
emphasizes interpersonal intellectual functioning as a separate category from other types of intellectual functioning
Latent Learning
concept of mirror neurons is irrelevant to latent learning, which refers to the acquisition of a behavioral response in the absence of any reinforcement
Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development
Level 1:
preconventional morality (<9yrs old) § Stage1: obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment § Stage 2: individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards
Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development
Level 2:
conventional morality (>9yrs old) § Stage 3: interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval § Stage 4: authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order
Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development
Level 3:
post conventional morality
§ Stage 5: social construct: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights
§ Stage 6: universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
predicts that people will be more aggressive when they are frustrated
○ Frustration can be operationalized as being hindered from a desired goal
Values
culturally defined standards that serve as broad guidelines for social living
Assimilation
involves norms and values but more specifically refers to the process through which a group adopts the norms and values of a new culture (often in the context of immigration) - aka process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture
Socialization
learning how to interact with others - includes norms and values that are instilled in us by media exposure (and other exposure)
Piaget’s theory
Sensorimotor stage
(until 2) = object permanence develops
§ Can use accommodation (the use of existing mental schemas) to acquire knowledge about novel experiences
Piaget’s theory
Preoperational stage
(ages 2-7) = children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information
§ Child can form stable concepts and magical beliefs
§ Cannot perform operations (tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically)
§ Children’s perspectives are limited by egocentrism (they cannot understand a perspective other than their own)
Piaget’s theory
Concrete operational stage
(ages 7-11) = characterized by the appropriate use of logic
§ The two important processes in the concrete operational stage are logic and the elimination of egocentrism
§ Learn idea of conservation - e.g. the liquid volume
Piaget’s theory
Formal operational stage
(after age 11) = the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning
Core nation
developed and contain a lot of wealth and power
○ Strong economy and are economically diversified
Semi-periphery nation
relatively weak economic and political infrastructure, but are developing their economies and government
○ Diversified economy but not dominant in international trade
○ Not necessarily dependent on another country
Periphery nation
less economically developed with weak government and institutions and often dependent on the core nations
Developed nation
similar to core nation, economically advanced
I according to Mead
the spontaneous and autonomous part of self
Id
by freud - reflects unconscious instincts and other more innate aspects of personality
Ego
by freud - conscious aspect of personality
Stimulus discrimination
ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
Stimulus generalization
demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Second order conditioning
pairing a novel neutral stimulus with the CS, which takes the place of the original unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
○ The resulting CR, emitted in response to the new CS will not be as strong as the original CR
○ Within classical conditioning
○ The first stimulus is made meaningful, then that stimulus is used to learn about the second stimulus
Spontaneous recovery
return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
Unconditioned response (UCR)
natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus
Leptin
protein hormone secreted by fat cells - causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Extinction
eventual disappearance of an acquired response following a series of trials in which a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus or an operant response is no longer followed by reward
Working Memory
the system that actively holds multiple pieces of information in the mind for the execution of verbal and nonverbal tasks and makes them available for further information processing
Procedural Memory
type of implicit memory and they include memories on how to do specific tasks
E.g. riding a bike
Implicit Memory
long-term memories that are not consciously remembered, including procedural memories and emotional conditioning
Stereotype threat
the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group
If negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific group, they are likely to become anxious about their performance, which in turn may hinder their ability to perform their best
Gestalt grouping principle of common Fate
objects that function or move in the same direction appear to belong together as a unified group
Rods
strongly photosensitive and are located in the outer edges of the retina
Detect dim light and are used primarily for peripheral and nighttime vision
Cones
weakly photosensitive and are located near the center of the retina
○ Respond to bright light and their primary role is in daytime, color vision
Fovea
region in the center back of the eye that is responsible for acute vision
○ High density of cones
○ When you bring your gaze to an object to examine it intently in bright light, the eyes orient so that the object’s image falls on the fovea
Purity and brightness
used to describe color itself not necessarily vary to get different hues
○ Amplitude not related to hues
○ Visual components of the electromagnetic spectrum show which wavelength corresponds to different colors and hues
Methodological limitation
something in the research design that is negative
Limitation
describes possible restriction or restraint
Social capital
the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively
Cultural capital
accumulation of knowledge, behaviors, and skills that a person can tap into to demonstrate one’s cultural competence and social status
Charismatic authority
a form of power that rests in the legitimacy of a unique individual
Projection
defense mechanism that involves displacing feelings onto something else
Reaction formation
defense mechanism where the someone would do the direct opposite of what they feel
Regression
defense mechanism in which someone would revert back to an earlier stage in development typically after a traumatic or stressful event
Sublimation
a perspective that focuses on how knowledge and experiences are not real but exist because individuals and society give them meaning
○ E.g. ideas like heath and disease are defined and shaped over time by society and subject to cultural norms
Peripheral vision
when looking at a star in the night sky or other object in dim light, the object can be viewed better by the peripheral vision because it is the rods at the edges of the retina rather than the cones at the center that operate better in low light
